BILLBOARD ADVERTISING EFFECTS IN A FIELD SETTING: BRAND AND ADVERTISING RECALL (1983, 1-5)
Spencer F. Tinkham

Part of a multi-market research program, this test market study found that billboard advertising for an established snack product significantly increased brand and advertising recall. The results also suggest that billboard wearout may occur early in the campaign, and that rapid response decay may occur after the boards come down.

Media planners are frequently faced with decision-making involving a number of vehicles within a category which possess virtually similar demographic audience profiles and cost-per-thousand comparisons. This traditional approach to intermedia comparisons often problematically relegates the planner to relatively subjective criteria. Past lifestyle research typologies have proven situation-specific, and the opportunity exists for a generalizable approach. The recently developed VALS typology is demonstrated to provide applications facilitating intermedia comparisons in three magazine categories: newsweeklies, business and financial magazines, and womenÍs magazines.

In recent years, magazine circulation and real advertising growth has declined compared to the annual increases experienced during the 1970Ís. In spite of these generally slower growth patterns, some individual magazines have experienced remarkable growth. The present paper examines categories of magazines that have been most successful in attracting advertisers and readers since 1980. The importance of reader-involved media and moderate circulation appears to be two primary criteria in predicting the success of a publication.

This investigation relates radio-language preference to a number of demographic and media measures collected via survey (N = 993) among the Mexican-American community of San Antonio. The primary aim of this investigation was to better identify and specify the dominant media typologies among the Hispanic audience.

The effect of pun and nonsensical humor on advertising recall and message credibility was tested among two groups of university students. While there was no difference between the ñpunî and its straight version, a significant difference in message credibility was discovered between the ñnonsensicalî ad and its straight counterpart. The difference was due to perceived authority. The results suggest that nonsensical humor should not be used in advertising to enhance message credibility.

Issue advertising is perceived as one of the more popular vehicles for waging the battle for the public mind and its usage in the 1980s is projected to grow. Though neither the business respondents nor the media respondents appear to be satisfied with the effectiveness of the issue campaigns that have been running, the projections of continued and even increased usage in the 1980s appear to be supported in the survey reported here.

The paper examines whether hierarchy models can remain useful in the face of models which propose alternate ordering or omission of their steps. These models are analyzed in terms of PrestonÍs hierarchical ñAssociation Modelî of advertising, with the conclusion that the latter may be retained as valid with appropriate changes.

The purpose of this paper is to describe and explain the ñtape match modelî of advertising effectiveness used by the United States Army Recruiting CommandÍs Advertising and Sales Promotion Directorate. The model attempts to link advertising message to actual enlistments. Equally important is the goal of understanding how all purposeful communication works in the enlistment process.

This experiment has tested the impact of television program and commercial combinations on change in attitude toward a brand. HelsonÍs Adaptation-Level Theory is used to explain why different program and commercial combinations result in different degrees of attitude change toward the same brand. Finally, recommendations for advertising practice are offered.

Pioneering social psychologist Muzafer Sherif developed the concept of the ñframe of referenceî in establishing his ñintegrative interactionistî approach to the field. It represents a potentially rich concept for understanding existing advertisements and projecting the role of future ones.

This article compares the advertising clearance procedures at four different advertising agencies. The extent and type of clearance involved in these agencies were found to be related to the media to be used and client type (consumer vs. industrial) as well as agency size.

Critics often claim that academic advertising research, such as that found in the Journal of Advertising, is of little value to advertising practitioners. Some have noted that academic studies do not address issues of common concern. Others have speculated that practitioners may be suspicious of empirical studies in general, whether academic or not. However, no one has systematically focused on the opinions of those practitioners most directly involved with research and its interpretation: advertising research managers. This study gave research managers of leading advertisers and agencies the opportunity to evaluate academic advertising research. Its goal is to foster more productive interaction between the two communities.

A content analysis of all issues of nine advertising, marketing, and interdisciplinary publications from 1975 to 1980 was undertaken to determine the characteristics of samples used in advertising research. The results revealed that while an unwarranted amount of attention is paid college students as a subpopulation, the use of students as surrogates for nonstudents is not as frequent as it is in marketing studies. However, academics use a very large number of student samples for laboratory studies. Recommendations based upon data from the study are offered for improving sampling practices in advertising research.

The purpose of corrective advertising is to dispel the effects of false, misleading and/or deceptive advertising while not being punitive to the manufacturer or the brand. This study looks at the effectiveness of the FTC issued corrective advertising remedy in the Listerine case. No significant change in consumer attitudes concerning the ability of Listerine to prevent colds/sore throats or lessen their severity was found over the sixteen month period. In addition, a difference between Listerine and the industry norm was reported for the same variable.

This study reviews the history of the National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus and the National Advertising Review Board from the perspective of decisions rendered toward natural foods. The study found that foods are the category most often contended by the NAD and that natural foods became an increasingly popular battleground in NAD contests as the 1970s led to the 1980s. Yet the burden for fair advertising remains first with the advertiser, not the regulatory powers.

Assertions by advertising leaders suggest that this industry has a highly volatile level of business activity. If these assertions are true, high volatility could represent a significant impediment to strategic planning in all forms, and to human resource planning in particular. This paper, using time series analysis of recent historical evidence, refutes the assertion that the impediments to strategic planning are based on volatility. It suggests rather that planning impediments are more likely to be found in the psychological makeup of the would-be planner.

Characteristics of services have been identified as being different from those of tangible products. These differences and other concerns must be taken into account when marketing professional services. The medical profession is used to illustrate this point. This paper suggests how attention to marketing communications can take advantage of information search patterns, and can be a good method of combatting competition.

An information legal advertising campaign was conducted in Peoria County, Illinois with Winnebago County, Illinois as the control group. The campaign ran for three weeks and utilized television, radio, and newspapers. The following conclusions were reached: 1. Seventy-eight percent recalled the campaign.
2. Sixty-eight percent comprehended one or more message themes.
3. A positive attitude shift in amount of confidence respondents had in lawyers was found.
4. A positive shift in intentions to have a will prepared was found.

Since advertising has long been a ubiquitous and persuasive part of American culture, it is not surprising that the mass media have reflected this institution through a myriad of images about advertising, advertising agencies and advertising people that have coalesced into stereotypes. This article provides a brief overview and generalizations regarding the media treatment of the account executive. The major part of the article is comprised of a participant-observation study of the account executive conducted during an eight-week work experience in one of the largest advertising agencies in the country. The study showed that although the environment in which account personnel work is fast-paced, full of deadlines, client lunches, pressures, and long hours, it does not appear that agency life has degenerated into the ñdog-eat-dogî world portrayed in the media. In contrast to the media image, account people say personal friendships and socializing outside of work have little to do with their success. Instead, they put more stock in their knowledge of marketing principles, complete research and knowledge of the clientÍs market situation, and careful preparation for meetings.

Today much attention is paid to so-called ñcontroversyî advertising. Yet in the 1960s legendary copywriter and critic Howard Gossage had written or been associated with a number of memorable efforts. This paper details those advertisements, and more generally explores GossageÍs social conscience.

David OgilvyÍs Confessions of an Advertising Man contains a complaint that advertising men are usually overlooked when public servants are sought. He considers that unfortunate, arguing that advertising agents are extraordinarily well-prepared for public service. Others observed, after Watergate, that such might not be the case. This paper discusses the widespread existence of parity products, the socialization of advertising practitioners resulting from the advertising of such products, and the consequences that may result when such socialization is carried into government service.

Public opinion of ad practitioners has never been high as documented by numerous earlier studies. Review of the literature reveals that little attempt has been made to determine the sources of the negative opinions and suggests that first hand knowledge of the advertising business might be an important factor influencing opinion. This study, based on telephone interviews with over 400 respondents, probes the two areas above and reports information on perceived characteristics of ad people.

This article proposes a model as a guide to managing the creative process in advertising. The model is based on a problem-solving approach to creativity. The article elaborates on the essential components of the model in an effort to help managers better understand the nature of creative thinking and creative personnel. Better management of creatives (i.e., writer and artist) should ultimately lead to better and more creative solutions to advertising problems.

The present study examined the relationship between womenÍs sex role orientations and desired advertising role portrayals. No direct relationship was found. However, the evidence suggested that for the products and roles tested, a neutral role portrayal may provide advertisers with the best spokesperson.

Research demonstrates that the portrayal of women as decorative models has been consistently used in magazine advertising over the last three decades. The present study takes a look over time at the effects of decorative female models by comparing recognition for magazine ads from the 1950s with recognition for magazine ads from the 1970s. Analyses of Starch scored magazine ads indicate that the presence of decorative female models had comparable effects on ad recognition over both decades.

This paper identifies six dimensions of perceived leisure theorized to be present across different activities. Using a content analysis of travel advertisements and brochures, the paper seeks to investigate the presence of these dimensions in leisure promotion copy.

A mail survey of leading advertising educators revealed changing emphasis in programs and curricula. Management, media and sales appear to be gaining popularity, which is perhaps appropriate to todayÍs changing technology.

A survey of the members of the American Academy of Advertising indicated that while the majority of advertising doctoral students are given the opportunity to teach, relatively few have actually received any formal teacher training while in their doctoral programs. In addition, those courses devoted to the teaching of teaching were found to contain some discrepancies with regard to the subject areas given precedence and those areas perceived by the respondents to be important. The results also reveal that doctoral programs in advertising place primary emphasis on research while teaching is considered to be of secondary importance.

This survey of advertising books, i.e., textbooks, how-toÍs, autobiographies of well-known advertising figures, and reminiscences of advertising people. focuses on literary reference that illuminate certain points and issues in advertising, with particular emphasis on copywriting. In the majority of cases, the newer the book, the fewer literary references. Yet, passages from the literature to clarify areas in advertising with a grace and artfulness that is lacking in the more straightforward works.

The evolution of trends in advertising theory is reviewed from its early psychological origins through the sociology and social-psychology periods to the ñtheory-freeî period of the 1960s and ï70s. A recommendation is made for the unification of theory to date under General Systems Theory, acknowledging its shortcomings, as a preparation for a possible computer-based, comprehensive model to process more precise quantitative measures of advertising impact on individuals and social aggregates.

(i) This paper reviews seventeen well-documented cases in which attempts have been made to draw up advertising response functions based on a causal relationship between incremental advertising pressure and incremental sales.
(ii) These cases are then related to the continuum of roles for advertising first propounded by the British analyst King.
(iii) Three hypotheses are proposed which relate the type of response function to the specific role of advertising on KingÍs continuum; and it is suggested that future empirical investigations might be angled to test these three hypotheses, which if confirmed could have considerable operational importance.

This report relates to the study of an attempt to measure the effectiveness of a small scale print campaign designed to change perceptions concerning Doctors of Osteopathy. A rate of change of ñcorrectî to ñincorrectî perceptions measure is used and compared to more traditional correlated t-tests and chi-square measures of change.

Research examining the relationship between three personality traits, optimum stimulation level and exploratory tendencies in the consumer context is reported. Implications for advertisers are suggested.

This study compared recall and recognition of television ads using one of three types of appeal: factual, emotional, and factual-emotional balanced; under two instructional sets, one emphasizing attention to the ads, and the other, attention to the surrounding programming. Although instructions had no significant effect on recognition, attention to the ads led to significantly higher recall. Type of appeal had effects which varied depending upon the memory task and what kind of information was required, although generally, memory was strongest for emotional ads.

The goals of this study were to (1) examine the relationship between the Jungian psychological traits of a sample of students and the dependent variables of recall, attitude, believability, and the informativeness with respect to a comparative advertising approach, and (2) to compare the relative efficacy of a comparative advertising commercial with a noncomparative commercial. Multiple regression and analysis of variance were employed to examine the data for relationships and differences. The findings of this study provide little evidence for a relationship between psychological type dimensions and reactions to comparative advertising, and also, little encouragement for the use of comparative advertising.

BILLBOARD ADVERTISING EFFECTS IN A FIELD SETTING: BRAND AND ADVERTISING RECALL (1983, 1-5)
Spencer F. Tinkham

Part of a multi-market research program, this test market study found that billboard advertising for an established snack product significantly increased brand and advertising recall. The results also suggest that billboard wearout may occur early in the campaign, and that rapid response decay may occur after the boards come down.

Media planners are frequently faced with decision-making involving a number of vehicles within a category which possess virtually similar demographic audience profiles and cost-per-thousand comparisons. This traditional approach to intermedia comparisons often problematically relegates the planner to relatively subjective criteria. Past lifestyle research typologies have proven situation-specific, and the opportunity exists for a generalizable approach. The recently developed VALS typology is demonstrated to provide applications facilitating intermedia comparisons in three magazine categories: newsweeklies, business and financial magazines, and womenÍs magazines.

In recent years, magazine circulation and real advertising growth has declined compared to the annual increases experienced during the 1970Ís. In spite of these generally slower growth patterns, some individual magazines have experienced remarkable growth. The present paper examines categories of magazines that have been most successful in attracting advertisers and readers since 1980. The importance of reader-involved media and moderate circulation appears to be two primary criteria in predicting the success of a publication.

This investigation relates radio-language preference to a number of demographic and media measures collected via survey (N = 993) among the Mexican-American community of San Antonio. The primary aim of this investigation was to better identify and specify the dominant media typologies among the Hispanic audience.

The effect of pun and nonsensical humor on advertising recall and message credibility was tested among two groups of university students. While there was no difference between the ñpunî and its straight version, a significant difference in message credibility was discovered between the ñnonsensicalî ad and its straight counterpart. The difference was due to perceived authority. The results suggest that nonsensical humor should not be used in advertising to enhance message credibility.

Issue advertising is perceived as one of the more popular vehicles for waging the battle for the public mind and its usage in the 1980s is projected to grow. Though neither the business respondents nor the media respondents appear to be satisfied with the effectiveness of the issue campaigns that have been running, the projections of continued and even increased usage in the 1980s appear to be supported in the survey reported here.

The paper examines whether hierarchy models can remain useful in the face of models which propose alternate ordering or omission of their steps. These models are analyzed in terms of PrestonÍs hierarchical ñAssociation Modelî of advertising, with the conclusion that the latter may be retained as valid with appropriate changes.

The purpose of this paper is to describe and explain the ñtape match modelî of advertising effectiveness used by the United States Army Recruiting CommandÍs Advertising and Sales Promotion Directorate. The model attempts to link advertising message to actual enlistments. Equally important is the goal of understanding how all purposeful communication works in the enlistment process.

This experiment has tested the impact of television program and commercial combinations on change in attitude toward a brand. HelsonÍs Adaptation-Level Theory is used to explain why different program and commercial combinations result in different degrees of attitude change toward the same brand. Finally, recommendations for advertising practice are offered.

Pioneering social psychologist Muzafer Sherif developed the concept of the ñframe of referenceî in establishing his ñintegrative interactionistî approach to the field. It represents a potentially rich concept for understanding existing advertisements and projecting the role of future ones.

This article compares the advertising clearance procedures at four different advertising agencies. The extent and type of clearance involved in these agencies were found to be related to the media to be used and client type (consumer vs. industrial) as well as agency size.

Critics often claim that academic advertising research, such as that found in the Journal of Advertising, is of little value to advertising practitioners. Some have noted that academic studies do not address issues of common concern. Others have speculated that practitioners may be suspicious of empirical studies in general, whether academic or not. However, no one has systematically focused on the opinions of those practitioners most directly involved with research and its interpretation: advertising research managers. This study gave research managers of leading advertisers and agencies the opportunity to evaluate academic advertising research. Its goal is to foster more productive interaction between the two communities.

A content analysis of all issues of nine advertising, marketing, and interdisciplinary publications from 1975 to 1980 was undertaken to determine the characteristics of samples used in advertising research. The results revealed that while an unwarranted amount of attention is paid college students as a subpopulation, the use of students as surrogates for nonstudents is not as frequent as it is in marketing studies. However, academics use a very large number of student samples for laboratory studies. Recommendations based upon data from the study are offered for improving sampling practices in advertising research.

The purpose of corrective advertising is to dispel the effects of false, misleading and/or deceptive advertising while not being punitive to the manufacturer or the brand. This study looks at the effectiveness of the FTC issued corrective advertising remedy in the Listerine case. No significant change in consumer attitudes concerning the ability of Listerine to prevent colds/sore throats or lessen their severity was found over the sixteen month period. In addition, a difference between Listerine and the industry norm was reported for the same variable.

This study reviews the history of the National Advertising Division of the Council of Better Business Bureaus and the National Advertising Review Board from the perspective of decisions rendered toward natural foods. The study found that foods are the category most often contended by the NAD and that natural foods became an increasingly popular battleground in NAD contests as the 1970s led to the 1980s. Yet the burden for fair advertising remains first with the advertiser, not the regulatory powers.

Assertions by advertising leaders suggest that this industry has a highly volatile level of business activity. If these assertions are true, high volatility could represent a significant impediment to strategic planning in all forms, and to human resource planning in particular. This paper, using time series analysis of recent historical evidence, refutes the assertion that the impediments to strategic planning are based on volatility. It suggests rather that planning impediments are more likely to be found in the psychological makeup of the would-be planner.

Characteristics of services have been identified as being different from those of tangible products. These differences and other concerns must be taken into account when marketing professional services. The medical profession is used to illustrate this point. This paper suggests how attention to marketing communications can take advantage of information search patterns, and can be a good method of combatting competition.

An information legal advertising campaign was conducted in Peoria County, Illinois with Winnebago County, Illinois as the control group. The campaign ran for three weeks and utilized television, radio, and newspapers. The following conclusions were reached: 1. Seventy-eight percent recalled the campaign.
2. Sixty-eight percent comprehended one or more message themes.
3. A positive attitude shift in amount of confidence respondents had in lawyers was found.
4. A positive shift in intentions to have a will prepared was found.

Since advertising has long been a ubiquitous and persuasive part of American culture, it is not surprising that the mass media have reflected this institution through a myriad of images about advertising, advertising agencies and advertising people that have coalesced into stereotypes. This article provides a brief overview and generalizations regarding the media treatment of the account executive. The major part of the article is comprised of a participant-observation study of the account executive conducted during an eight-week work experience in one of the largest advertising agencies in the country. The study showed that although the environment in which account personnel work is fast-paced, full of deadlines, client lunches, pressures, and long hours, it does not appear that agency life has degenerated into the ñdog-eat-dogî world portrayed in the media. In contrast to the media image, account people say personal friendships and socializing outside of work have little to do with their success. Instead, they put more stock in their knowledge of marketing principles, complete research and knowledge of the clientÍs market situation, and careful preparation for meetings.

Today much attention is paid to so-called ñcontroversyî advertising. Yet in the 1960s legendary copywriter and critic Howard Gossage had written or been associated with a number of memorable efforts. This paper details those advertisements, and more generally explores GossageÍs social conscience.

David OgilvyÍs Confessions of an Advertising Man contains a complaint that advertising men are usually overlooked when public servants are sought. He considers that unfortunate, arguing that advertising agents are extraordinarily well-prepared for public service. Others observed, after Watergate, that such might not be the case. This paper discusses the widespread existence of parity products, the socialization of advertising practitioners resulting from the advertising of such products, and the consequences that may result when such socialization is carried into government service.

Public opinion of ad practitioners has never been high as documented by numerous earlier studies. Review of the literature reveals that little attempt has been made to determine the sources of the negative opinions and suggests that first hand knowledge of the advertising business might be an important factor influencing opinion. This study, based on telephone interviews with over 400 respondents, probes the two areas above and reports information on perceived characteristics of ad people.

This article proposes a model as a guide to managing the creative process in advertising. The model is based on a problem-solving approach to creativity. The article elaborates on the essential components of the model in an effort to help managers better understand the nature of creative thinking and creative personnel. Better management of creatives (i.e., writer and artist) should ultimately lead to better and more creative solutions to advertising problems.

The present study examined the relationship between womenÍs sex role orientations and desired advertising role portrayals. No direct relationship was found. However, the evidence suggested that for the products and roles tested, a neutral role portrayal may provide advertisers with the best spokesperson.

Research demonstrates that the portrayal of women as decorative models has been consistently used in magazine advertising over the last three decades. The present study takes a look over time at the effects of decorative female models by comparing recognition for magazine ads from the 1950s with recognition for magazine ads from the 1970s. Analyses of Starch scored magazine ads indicate that the presence of decorative female models had comparable effects on ad recognition over both decades.

This paper identifies six dimensions of perceived leisure theorized to be present across different activities. Using a content analysis of travel advertisements and brochures, the paper seeks to investigate the presence of these dimensions in leisure promotion copy.

A mail survey of leading advertising educators revealed changing emphasis in programs and curricula. Management, media and sales appear to be gaining popularity, which is perhaps appropriate to todayÍs changing technology.

A survey of the members of the American Academy of Advertising indicated that while the majority of advertising doctoral students are given the opportunity to teach, relatively few have actually received any formal teacher training while in their doctoral programs. In addition, those courses devoted to the teaching of teaching were found to contain some discrepancies with regard to the subject areas given precedence and those areas perceived by the respondents to be important. The results also reveal that doctoral programs in advertising place primary emphasis on research while teaching is considered to be of secondary importance.

This survey of advertising books, i.e., textbooks, how-toÍs, autobiographies of well-known advertising figures, and reminiscences of advertising people. focuses on literary reference that illuminate certain points and issues in advertising, with particular emphasis on copywriting. In the majority of cases, the newer the book, the fewer literary references. Yet, passages from the literature to clarify areas in advertising with a grace and artfulness that is lacking in the more straightforward works.

The evolution of trends in advertising theory is reviewed from its early psychological origins through the sociology and social-psychology periods to the ñtheory-freeî period of the 1960s and ï70s. A recommendation is made for the unification of theory to date under General Systems Theory, acknowledging its shortcomings, as a preparation for a possible computer-based, comprehensive model to process more precise quantitative measures of advertising impact on individuals and social aggregates.

(i) This paper reviews seventeen well-documented cases in which attempts have been made to draw up advertising response functions based on a causal relationship between incremental advertising pressure and incremental sales.
(ii) These cases are then related to the continuum of roles for advertising first propounded by the British analyst King.
(iii) Three hypotheses are proposed which relate the type of response function to the specific role of advertising on KingÍs continuum; and it is suggested that future empirical investigations might be angled to test these three hypotheses, which if confirmed could have considerable operational importance.

This report relates to the study of an attempt to measure the effectiveness of a small scale print campaign designed to change perceptions concerning Doctors of Osteopathy. A rate of change of ñcorrectî to ñincorrectî perceptions measure is used and compared to more traditional correlated t-tests and chi-square measures of change.

Research examining the relationship between three personality traits, optimum stimulation level and exploratory tendencies in the consumer context is reported. Implications for advertisers are suggested.

This study compared recall and recognition of television ads using one of three types of appeal: factual, emotional, and factual-emotional balanced; under two instructional sets, one emphasizing attention to the ads, and the other, attention to the surrounding programming. Although instructions had no significant effect on recognition, attention to the ads led to significantly higher recall. Type of appeal had effects which varied depending upon the memory task and what kind of information was required, although generally, memory was strongest for emotional ads.

The goals of this study were to (1) examine the relationship between the Jungian psychological traits of a sample of students and the dependent variables of recall, attitude, believability, and the informativeness with respect to a comparative advertising approach, and (2) to compare the relative efficacy of a comparative advertising commercial with a noncomparative commercial. Multiple regression and analysis of variance were employed to examine the data for relationships and differences. The findings of this study provide little evidence for a relationship between psychological type dimensions and reactions to comparative advertising, and also, little encouragement for the use of comparative advertising.