A BRIEF HISTORY OF U.S. ADVERTISING SELF-REGULATION TO 1970 (pp 2-7, 1985)
Gordon E. Miracle

This paper is devoted to identifying and explaining briefly some of the major milestones of advertising self-regulation which, along with other developments, led eventually to the self-regulatory developments of the last 15 years. Since these recent developments have been given extensive treatment elsewhere, the focus of this paper will be on historical developments prior to 1971.

This paper questions why, with no legal barriers, contraceptives remain the only product banned from network television advertising. A historical perspective is provided plus political and paralegal reasons, including the lingering ghost of the NAB Code.

Some advertisers insert a visual copyright notice in their advertisements and others do not. This suggests possible differences in industry practice regarding audiovisual copyright applications. Some agencies discuss copyright with clients; others leave copyright entirely up to the client. A few advertisers do not think they can or need to seek copyright protection. Both agencies and advertisers should examine their audiovisual copyright policies.

A review of the literature reveals that outdoor advertising has been the subject of very few investigations. In order to assess the conformity of current outdoor advertising to the creative principles of outdoor that have been established and promoted for years, a content analysis was undertaken. Results indicate that while national advertisers adhere to the creative principles of outdoor their local/regional counterparts do not. In an effort to correct the current outdoor advertising practices of local/regional advertisers, specific guidelines for improvement are suggested.

Alcoholic beverage advertising has increasingly received critical attention from consumer groups over the past 20 years. In light of this attention, the present article presents findings of a content analysis of alcoholic beverages advertising which appeared in four representative consumer magazines between 1964-1983. The findings profile such advertising across six key variables and implications are suggested for both public health officials and advertising practitioners.

Recent studies have shown an increasing interest in the importance of brand names as a factor in successful marketing, and in particular, in methods and procedures of generating brand names. This study examines the top 200 brand names of 1983 on the basis of an 18-parameter linguistic coding schema to determine which specific linguistic features these well known names may share.

This paper develops McGuire's (1978) Persuasion Matrix by substituting a memory-based model of viewer response stages for McGuire's more general model, and by examining the effects of micro-level message variables on the processing stages of the model. The approach yields two important advantages. First, it provides an organizational device for research using microanalytical approaches to study message structure effects. And second, it demonstrates that message structures often simultaneously have positive, negative, and null effects on viewer processing stages. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for advertising theory and practice.

This paper emphasizes the need to develop a theoretical framework for understanding the role of emotion in consumers' response to advertising. Arguing that emotion deserves attention as a phenomenon in its own right, it is also stressed that a model of human behavior cannot separate cognition and emotion into separate "faculties." Three types of emotional response (descriptive, empathetic, and meaningful) are identified in consumers' verbatim protocols. Findings are presented which discriminate between three commercials using the Viewer Response Profile "empathy" dimension and these three types of emotional response.

Because of the limitations and problems encountered in available copytesting procedures, this paper presents an alternative theory-based technique. Copytesting Through Psychological Meaning is described. The procedure's strengths and managerial implications are also suggested.

This study reports the results of a laboratory investigation concerning the effects of women's role portrayals in advertisements. Women were segmented into modern and traditional role orientation groups. Women in each of these groups were asked to evaluate advertisements designed to depict either a traditional or modern role portrayal. The results demonstrate that consistency between the role portrayal in an advertisement and the role orientation of the target audience enhances communications effectiveness. Modern women react more strongly than traditional women to role portrayals inconsistent with their views.

This study was designed to explore the advertising effects engendered by message type (assertions versus implications) and the relationship of receiver product involvement to communication success. The study employed a 2 group experimental design in which the independent variable, message type (assertion versus implication) was varied while a covariate, the receiver's involvement with the advertised product category was assessed post hoc.

This examination of the role of program context on memory for commercials involved four departures from previous research. First, it sampled programs and commercials rather than depending on single exemplars. Second, it counterbalanced the presentation of programs and commercials to eliminate confounding of program effects with order effects. Third, it indexed involvement with the alpha frequency of the electroencephalogram and with data generated by having subjects continuously turn a dial to indicate liking. Fourth, it measured alpha and liking both for programs and for commercials. Results showed that memory for ads was detrimentally affected in programs that were liked and that produced cortical arousal. Neither liking nor cortical arousal during the commercials was influenced by preceding programming.

The substantial effects on sales of point-of-purchase (POP) advertising are reviewed. The need for testing to learn POP advertising effects is advocated. A low-involvement model of consumer behavior is used to explain why POP advertising is such a powerful influence on buying behavior.

The subject of impulse purchasing has generated little empirical research in recent years, despite the fact that this type of behavior accounts for a significant proportion of consumer purchases. Existing evidence focuses on type of outlet and type of product as independent variables without adequately considering individual differences among consumers. The present study measured the influence of consumer shopping lifestyles, shopping behavior, decision task variables, demographics, and personality in an effort to determine if certain consumers are more likely than others to make unplanned purchases. The results have important implications for marketers.

Sales promotion is lacking a method of pretesting executions and promotional concepts. Sales promotion decisions are inherently multidimensional suggesting the use of multidimensional scaling. Using INDSCAL and PREFMAP a scheme to compare sales promotion executions with ideal points is suggested.

There are nineteen major ad-supported cable networks but only two are currently making a profit. Survival of ad-supported networks depends on being able to attract more advertising dollars from current advertisers and new advertisers. The industry must overcome perceived drawbacks before it can hope to achieve its desired status as an advertising medium. A key to this goal is acceptance by media planners, account supervisors and product managers. The research reported here deals with the attitudes of these groups toward ad-supported cable television as an alternative medium for network television.

The television is a complex piece of equipment capable of doing more than just delivering over-the-air programming. This paper reports the results of a study which investigated the television user's view of the future, as it relates to the television set and its usage. Television viewers are interested in more/better news/information programming and different entertainment alternatives. Of less interest are teletext/videotext opportunities.

Zapping is defined as the deliberate avoidance of commercials using a variety of electronic means. The purpose of the present study is to survey college students with regard to their television zapping habits. Approximately forty percent of the respondents use either a remote control unit or a video cassette recorder to avoid commercials. Most respondents switch channels often between programs and seldom within a program, and change channels primarily due to curiosity. Over 50% of the respondents leave the room during a commercial break.

While consensus on the relative merit of each successive exposure opportunity is uncertain, media experts have concluded that the so-called "S-Curve Theory" is accurate. This, they believe, renders the initial exposure opportunity to a weak, if not worthless contribution to memorability, attitude change or sales behavior. This article introduces, through two experimental studies, a message condition that appears to have as much, if not more, influence on response outcomes than does message frequency. This environmental condition, known as Share of Voice, is recommended as a needed evaluator in any empirical test of message exposure opportunity.

Most media models estimate the exposure distribution of magazine schedules from the average issue audience and from cross-pair and self-pair duplication data provided by a syndicated data source. However, as duplication data are generally limited, most models cannot be used in many situations without additional analysis to estimate duplicated audience. This paper develops and tests a "limited data" model, based on the beta binomial distribution, which requires the average issue audience as the only data input. No syndicated duplication data or complicated estimates of duplicated audiences are required.

Utility companies frequently insert brochures in billing statements in an effort to convey energy conservation information to customers. However, little is known about the readership and the relative effectiveness of this controlled medium. This paper reports the results of an exploratory study conducted to identify the correlates of energy conservation brochure readership and to determine how these correlates affect one specific type of conservation behavior -- turning down the thermostat.

Recent evidence shows that an investment portfolio of the stocks of leading national advertisers outperforms the general stock market. Further disaggregation into aggressive, defensive and contrarian portfolios suggest stock selection rules that, in the latter two portfolios, show especially attractive properties when evaluated by five measures of portfolio performance.

This paper describes a mathematical model that can be used to aid the manager in the promotional mix decision. It is based on the benefit gained by the manager from the various elements of the promotional mix. A technique is developed where the benefit derived from an activity is equated with the cost of conducting the activity. The discussion focuses on how to allocate a constrained resource among competing demands.

Although corporate advertising expenditures continue to grow at a rapid pace, the literature suggest that decision makers may be operating on a weak foundation of corporate advertising knowledge and research. This paper sets forth a taxonomy to solve definitional and classificational problems plaguing the subject area and calls for broader research and communications strategy perspectives.

This research investigates antecedent conditions related to media decisions in United States Congressional election campaigns. Significant variations were observed as a function of: Census region, district income, incumbency, and total spending. Also, allocation and spending levels were compared for winners and losers.

Discriminant analysis was used to distinguish voters who were influenced by political commercials in a gubernatorial campaign from those who weren't. Results indicate that voters who are concerned about an election, but don't follow the news may be most affected by advertising. These voters appear to use advertising to decide against a candidate as well as for one.

A 2x2x2 factorial design was used to examine effects of voter sex, source sex, and candidate sex in political advertising. Radio advertisements were developed and used as stimuli in a field experiment with a total sample size of 80. Analysis of variance showed sex of source having a significant effect on perceived source credibility and candidate rating with female source producing higher scores on both scales.

The concern of this special session is that faculty experiences and learning have tended to remain as personal knowledge for program participants. The goal of this session is to provide discussion of the participants experiences in the VPP program. We will not discuss the program logistics as is found in the various faculty reports to Bart Cummings at the end of every summer, but rather, the details of various types of agency practices.

"The View From My Office"
Roxanne Hovland

"The Ogilvy & Mather Media Department, Summer 1984"
Thomas A. Bowers

"Scenes from an Ad Agency Creative Department: Saatchi and Saatchi Compton, Summer 1984"
David A Wesson

The promotion and tenure policies and practices of advertising programs are examined. The balance among the evaluative areas of performance (teaching, research, and service) are assessed, together with the perceived importance of the various components of each area. The results are discussed in terms of trends in today's educational system.

Based on information gathered in a survey of the members of the American Academy of Advertising, computer use in advertising education is a small but growing part of the advertising curriculum. This study finds that while only a few advertising educators are currently using computer assisted teaching in their classes, a growing number are becoming interested in finding ways to use this decision making tool to help teach advertising students basic concepts and applications.

This article describes the Advertising Research Center recently established at the University of Illinois -- its history, objectives, personnel, facilities, functions, activities, budget and funding. The center is also evaluated in terms of its long-range contribution to advertising education, theory and practice. This is presented not as a blueprint for others, but merely as an attempt to share what is increasingly a common set of problems and opportunities.

The advantages to introducing students to computers are threefold; first, as an introduction to the work environment they are likely to enter. Second, the reasons of productivity that spurred their use in the business environment apply to productivity in the class environment as well. Third, the time will shortly come when students in all fields will be expected to have some level of computer competence.

This paper describes how the Department of Advertising at Northwestern University developed a program for integrating the use of microcomputers into its curriculum.

This article describes an interactive advertising media planning system designed to provide marketing and advertising educators with the necessary tools to make state-of-the-art theories and concepts routinely available.

A computer-assisted method/model to aid marketing planning is described which has the tabular and "what if" capabilities of commercially-available computer software packages to which are added regression-based and sales-elasticity based projections and analyses.

This discussion argues that the focus of much advertising research is predicated on empirical principles advocated by Logical Positivists whose "verificationist" view of scientific investigations has come under serious revision. The result of the implicit adoption of Positivist leanings among advertising researchers has meant that Behaviorism (the social science ramification of Positivism) has gained a steady following. The discussion maintains that findings must be "interpreted" to give a clearer picture of human motives, and that hermeneutics may prove a beneficial complement to advertising research.

There have been few attempts to date to systematize the growing body of theoretical research in advertising. The paper presents a framework for doing so. Based on a typology of group properties developed by Lazarsfeld and Menzel (1969), we outline a strategy for classifying advertising research according to the level of analysis employed. Identifying three basic levels of analysis, the analytical, the structural, and the global, we suggest that advertising research and theory to date has been predominantly at the analytical level. To explore this notion, we conduct a content analysis of all published proceedings from the American Academy of Advertising (AAA) annual conferences, 1977-1984.

Three major forces have dealt blows to professionals that now force physicians, who have been the most reluctant to advertise, to begin advertising. These three forces include 1) an assault on professional code of ethics of the American Medical Association and their position on advertising, 2) changing expectations of clients with respect to physician's knowledge and credentials, and 3) increased competition among physicians because of an oversupply of physicians occurring now and in the future.

Emotional and nonemotional moods are distinguished from emotions, and two experiments are reviewed showing that emotional moods have global effects and emotions have local effects on affective judgments. A general explanation is outlined, based on the idea that people use various kinds of feeling as information in making relevant judgments and decisions. A third experiment is described testing this hypothesis, and implications are discussed.

Research is presented which bears upon the measurement of the processes through which affective advertising works and the attitudinal effects of such advertising. Dimensions of consumer response to such advertising, called "affective responses," are presented, and it is suggested that these have potential use in copytest systems. It is also suggested that affective advertising can make brands more "likable and friendly," and ongoing research is presented on how such attitudinal affects may be measured.

Emotionally involving advertising can be used in many situations not generally thought to be emotion-laden. Advertisements based on strong strategic directives plus an understanding of the key emotional consumer benefits derived from a product or service can result in extremely compelling advertising.

The importance of emotion in advertising response models has often been ignored. Thus there is much confusion over the relationships between communications, cognitions, affect and behavior. Many models exist which describe possible relationships; however, these models often conflict. To aid in clarifying these relationships the authors turn to the study of brain physiology. As a result, the authors have developed a model which integrates both the traditional attitude components and their relevant relationships in the brain.

"Chunking," a notion from information processing, can help the instructor be more effective in teaching principles of advertising. "Chunking" simply refers to how persons organize incoming stimuli in short-term memory, as well as information in long-term memory, to facilitate processing and later recall. By introducing this concept in an advertising course, explanation of many advertising principles becomes easier and hence students are more likely to understand -- and appreciate -- various principles, rules, and guidelines.

In 1982, English and advertising instructors at Parkland College joined forces to improve students' writing skills and their understanding of advertising concepts. This paper describes the procedure, its problems, and the benefits gained from the linking of courses.

Escalating media charges, increased production costs, coupled with continued elusiveness of audiences for advertising messages, have caused advertising executives to seek enhanced effectiveness in their advertising programs. Similarly, budgetary pressures and student demands for worthwhile education have placed college teachers of all subjects, including advertising, to be more effective in the classroom. In this paper, one small way to bring about greater effectiveness in the Advertising Management course is discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to suggest questions which help develop an understanding of how new communication technology delivery systems will impact television consumption.

One major problem plaguing the cable television industry is the failure of pay channels to live up to projected penetration levels. This paper reports results of a survey of cable subscribers that reveals underlying reasons for this problem; it also suggests additional problems that will face pay channels, brought on by marketing and programming strategies that prove self-defeating for HBO and successful for Showtime.

The fast paced nature of technological innovations in the consumer communications product market has illuminated the need for reconsideration of segmentation strategies. This paper discusses the problems and critical considerations marketers and advertisers need to become aware of in promoting the new communications technology.

In this paper the authors present the argument that media software is a very special product category in which trial situations are absolutely essential. A special case is made for the importance of cross-media trial situations.

Identifying the target groups of the advertising of new communication products is a critical step in the growth of these new products. The present study attempts to isolate the strongest and most consistent variables to use for segmenting future purchasers of new communication products.