A FURTHER TEST OF A SIMPLE REACH / FREQUENCY MODEL (pp. 2 - 7, 1990)
Kuen-Hee Ju, Hae Kap Lee, and John D. Leckenby

The present study presents further results from an empirical test comparing the performance of a simple reach / frequency estimation model, Poisson-binomial distribution (PBD), against that of other models such as the BBD (beta-binomial distribution), Binomial, and the HPBD (Hofmans' reach combined with the PBD) introduced in a 1989 study by Ju and Leckenby. The test is conducted over a sample of 508 magazine schedules tabulated using 1984 SMRB data. Results show that the PBD, using only average single-issue vehicle audience as input data, produces as accurate estimations of the frequency distribution as the popular BBD which requires, in addition, audience duplication data. This study also finds the schedule size to affect the estimation accuracy of a model.

This study investigates the different editorial environments provided by special interest vs. general editorial magazines. It specifically examines the different environments of magazines and how they affect readers' attitudes towards the prestige of advertised products and the recall, believability and evaluation of advertisements. The scales measuring the prestige of advertised products, believability of advertisements and evaluation of advertisements were found to be reliable measures. Results suggest that high prestige products may need to be placed in magazines of comparable prestige or they may suffer a loss of prestige. In addition, correct brand name recognition of special interest products was lower when these products appeared in special interest magazines than when they appeared in general editorial magazines. Believability and evaluation of the advertisements did not appear to be affected by vehicle environment.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of the :15 commercials, 1) on dependent measures of recall, recognition, attitudes, and purchase intentions; 2) with various repetition levels; 3) under different levels of clutter condition. The experimental design employed was a 2 (lengths of a commercial: 15-second and 30-second) by 2 (levels of clutter: lower or higher) by 3 (levels of repetitions: one, two, or four exposures) between-subjects design. The results indicate that there was no significant difference between the :15 commercial and the :30 commercial in terms of recall and recognition regardless of repetition and clutter. The results of oneway analysis of variance indicate that repetition had positive effects on recall and recognition. However, Scheffe post-hoc measures reveal that the impact differs depending on the levels of clutter and commercial length. In addition, clutter was found to affect the brand name recall of :15 commercials. Finally, the results show that the increased clutter resulted in more negative overall attitudes toward TV commercials.

The effects of negative political advertising on voting intentions of 286 registered voters are examined in the context of a 1988 U.S. Senate race in the Upper Midwest. Four negative political ads (two for each major candidate) are examined in terms of their effects on voting intentions for both the ad sponsor and the ad target. The patterns of effects are compared for source-partisan, target-partisan, and nonpartisan voters. The findings suggest that the primary effect of negative political ads is to polarize the electorate.

This research effort was designed to probe the extent to which advertising by aspirin manufacturers influenced healthy consumer consumption of aspirin for first time heart attack protection. The advertising followed research publication in the New England Journal of Medicine in January 1988, and was significantly heavy to bring about warnings of advertising abuse from federal agencies and two state attorneys general. This research in a rural population revealed only 2.1% ( of 825 who recalled viewing such ads) actually started taking aspirin for heart health. Advertising did not bring about widespread aspirin consumption for first time heart attack protection. It would seem the concerns of the FDA and FTC were not warranted, at least regarding the target population studied in this research.

This is a report on how cause-related marketing was attempted by a liquor store chain using direct mail advertising aimed at promoting socially responsible alcohol use by college students -- not procuring alcohol for minors. Several copy themes were experimentally tested to ascertain their effect on perceptions of the ad, the retailer and their main competition, intention to purchase alcohol for minors and beliefs about the consequences of this illegal activity. There was no support for a negative effect using this social responsibility theme, and some partial support for its effectiveness.

With advertising becoming more ubiquitous, it is more difficult than ever to make an impression on the reader/viewer who is protecting herself from commercial overload. As a result, creative has to be inspired today. The author argues that traditional techniques result in a surfeit of grey matter. Instead, the creative person must look inward for the great idea, not outward at the audience. The classically successful campaigns -- Avis, Bartles & James, California Raisins among them --are a result of intuitive creative people trusting their own instincts, not trying to please an audience.

This study examines the cultural truism that advertising practitioners possess basic personality traits which differentiate them from both the general population and other business and communications personnel. Empirical evidence is provided which supports in part the contention that basic traits of advertising executives do, in fact, define an identifiable syndrome. Implications for career choice, business practice and consumer psychology are discussed.

Academically, professionally and socially, widespread instances of fraud, misconduct, and legal violations have led to an increased interest in business ethics. This study seeks to determine whether important differences exist between the business ethics of marketing and advertising students and those of advertising practitioners. Subjects responded to twelve "ethical/unethical" scenarios originally published in Advertising Age. Several statistically significant differences are noted not only between students and professionals, but also between student subgroups by major and sex. Differences between students and professionals contradict findings from earlier studies but reinforce the consideration of incorporating ethics courses within the university curriculum.

Celebrity source literature suggests varying effects on subjects' responses to advertising when the celebrity delivers the entire message but nay not explain the case where the endorsement is merely one element of the advertisement. This study examines ads where the endorsement is provided along with non-endorsement copy that varies from attribute-enriched to non-attribute-enriched. Ads were constructed pairing the two types of non-endorsement copy with high and low credibility celebrities. These ads were shown to a sample of 176 adults of varying ages and occupations recruited from church, community service, and veterans organizations in a mid-western city. Analysis by MANOVA indicates that attribute-enrichment may improve the meaningfulness and informativeness of ads utilizing celebrity endorsers.

The interactive role of source expertise and involvement was examined in an experiment on advertising effectiveness. In general, findings support an elaborative processing explanation. A two-way interaction among source expertise and involvement emerged for Aad and brand beliefs, but brand attitudes and behavioral intent were influenced only by involvement. The findings also suggest that the peripheral route of persuasion associated with Aad dominated for lower levels of involvement, but as elaboration increased, the central route associated with brand beliefs became important.

Research on advertising within the health care sector has primarily focused on attitudes. This survey focuses on information needs and preferred information sources. It finds that information needs of health care consumers are primarily " informational" (about health care facilities/physicians) rather than "educational" (about health topics). To satisfy these information needs, consumers prefer specific advertising and public relations sources: television and newspaper ads, brochures, direct mail, newsletter and health columns. Consumers prefer not to use health fairs or call-in radio talk shows. A synergistic match between the identified consumer information needs and sources is suggested to address physician and public sensitivity in the matter and to optimize on the specific advantages of different advertising and public relations sources.

This paper offers a re-examination of the usefulness of the values construct in marketing and advertising in light of recent studies. First, a closer look is taken at the conceptual nature of personal values and their relationship to attitudes and behaviors. Second, methodological issues are discussed regarding current techniques of value measurement and analysis. Individual differences are posited as variables significantly related to the measurement of values and the predictive usefulness of the values construct. Finally, implications for values research in the field of consumer behavior are discussed.

This paper uses semiotic analysis to examine the underlying cultural values contained in two advertising campaigns that appear throughout the region of Southeast Asia. One, the Marlboro campaign, is a multinational campaign that originated in the United States. The other, a campaign for Singapore Airlines, was created by an indigenous Southeast Asian agency in Singapore. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how advertisements, as cultural artifacts manifest the cultural values of their country of origin and to assert that Western-based multinational advertising may, in fact, be a form of cultural imperialism.

Much has been said and written about "global marketing" and the possibilities for standardizing advertising in two or more countries. Yet, the implications of the "globalization of markets" (Levitt 1983) remain controversial. This paper focuses on whether advertising can be standardized or transferred between Japan and the USA, with special reference to advertising law and regulations in each country. The distinction between advertising objectives, strategies and executions in this paper provides a framework for managers to use. This paper also provides a comparison of government regulation of advertising to guide their international advertising decision-making processes.

Resnik and Stern's 14-item information scale was used to compare the amount and kinds of information cues contained in two types of direct response ads--direct order and direct inquiry--drawn from 34 magazines. Content analysis of 893 full-page ads revealed that there was no significant difference between the 471 ads classified as "direct order" and the 422 ads classified as "direct inquiry" in terms of the amount of information conveyed. However, significant differences were found when the kinds of information contained in each of the two types of ads were examined. Six of the fourteen information cues appeared to be more characteristic of direct order ads.

The observations showed a marked lack of consistency of pattern. Virtually in all categories, the range of values could not support any notion of agreement. There was, however, significant difference between not-for-profit and for-profit commercials. The patterns of speech more closely reflected adult-to-adult than any other pattern.

Content analysis of 394 Canadian cigarette ads from 1987 finds that, despite full legislative freedom to be informative, there is very little information manifest in ads. The healthiness of the product and the associated life styles of its consumers is displayed in several ways, typically visuals of bold and lively behavior in pure and pristine environments, sometimes with descriptors like "light" or "ultra mild." More than two thirds of the ads manifest healthfulness in one or more of these ways.

Advertising visuals are stylistic, fictive, dynamic, and intertextual. Yet studies tend to ignore, reduce, or eliminate the style, meaning, and imagination of advertising art--and thus are based on a theory of advertising visuals that is inconsistent with their actual forms. Here, a new way of conceptualizing advertising art as a form of visual persuasion is proposed. Ideas from both visual and rhetorical theorists are used to explicate the artifactual nature of advertising and to form a construct in which the visual elements form tropes, arrange the argument, and provide the stylistic basis for persuasive delivery.

This paper proposes a typology of advertising based on poetic form and expected consumer responses. The purpose is to adapt responses associated with poetic forms to a study of advertising, to gain insight into how readers acquire and respond to meaning conveyed by verbal aesthetic dimensions. The paper first summarizes classification criteria. Next, it discusses the poetic forms in the typology: lyric, ballad, melodrama, epic, and mock epic. Advertising examples of these forms are analyzed. Last, a research agenda suggests the use of this typology in content analysis, experimental manipulations, and individual response differences.

Because of technology such as the videocassette recorder and remote controls which allow television viewers more and more control over what they are watching, it appears that viewers are paying less attention to television commercials. Use of attention-getting devices and changes in advertising content may not be sufficient to entice many viewers to watch advertisements. The purpose of this paper is to propose a focus on consumers' decision-making processes regarding commercial breaks within the broader context of television program viewing. By directing attention to the overall process rather than simply the content of the ads themselves, we believe solutions may be found for reaching that segment of viewers who engage in alternate activities without attending even the first ad in a stream. The theoretical framework proposed for examining television viewers' decision processes is cognitive script theory. A normative model of possible decision points is provided, including possible hierarchical structuring of a television-viewing metascript with tracks for different viewing situations which might affect expectations regarding commercial breaks. A research agenda, specifying associated questions, concerns, and possible directions of future study is presented, as well as some managerial implications of this approach.

Consumer attitudes toward hospital advertising and attitudinal attributes differentiating those with "favorable", "undecided" and "unfavorable" attitudes were analyzed. In this study 310 consumers were interviewed by telephone. Overall, 48.7% of the respondents had a "favorable" attitude toward hospital advertising, while 24.2% held an "unfavorable" attitude. Discriminant analysis identified 14 attitudinal attributes that were important in explaining the difference between the "favorable", "undecided" and "unfavorable" respondents. Respondent attitudes appear to vary by occupation, education and age.

The results of the study reported here indicate that corporate advertising campaigns are moving to a greater emphasis on marketing/product objectives. In 1988, market preparation and effecting long term sales, both marketing support objectives, became the most important corporate advertising objectives among 65% of the respondents in the survey. In addition, a majority of the survey respondents, 69%, felt the differences between corporate advertising and product advertising were becoming more difficult to distinguish and were often blurred. These and other key findings are reported for 247 executives taking part in a survey focusing on specific aspects of corporate advertising during the 1980-1988 period.

A controlled field experiment was conducted among employees of a large electrical engineering firm to test the effects of including advertising specialties as both reminders and incentives to read a new employee safety manual. Results showed that readership of the safety pamphlet was higher among employees who received the advertising specialties, that recipients of the specialties had higher mean scores on a safety quiz, and that 100 percent of employees who were promised specialty items as an incentive to do well, on an upcoming quiz could identify the safety campaign slogan.

This paper reports an exploratory investigation of the relationship between the Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) processing mode used by individuals and advertising copy appeals based on these modes. The results of an experiment indicate that variation in copy appeals, based on NLP, influences subjects' attitudes toward the advertisement and purchase intentions but not recall of copy points.

This paper offers a definition of involvement grounded in findings from cognitive psychology and neurophysiology about how information is processed. Based on the spreading activation model of memory, involvement is conceived as being a function of the extent of activation of long-term memory by working memory. The spreading activation model of memory enables us to distinguish involvement from prior knowledge, interest, attention, arousal and salience by arguing for distinct locations of each variable in the memory model. The model also helps reduce confusion in the literature arising when involvement, a mental process within an individual, is attributed to a product, situation or personality type.

Using a processing flow model, it was hypothesized that the effects of attitude toward the ad (Aad) on attitude toward the (Abr) brand would always be present, but the effects of cognitive attitude (BiEi) would vary according to the familiarity of the brands and level of involvement with the product in the ad. An experiment was conducted in which emotional impact of the ad, involvement with the product category, and brand familiarity were manipulated in a completely within subjects design. Results showed that Aad effects were always present, BiEi affected Abr only for familiar brands, and product involvement had no systematic effects on the pattern of information flow.

The dominant models of communication are process oriented. They are descriptive, overly abstract, and rational. As such, these models are insensitive to the reality of human communication. This paper attempts to offer an approach to communication theory that is real -- an approach that is personal, yet demanding rigor and yielding to analysis. An idea driven approach to communication is proposed and demonstrated as a way of synthesizing scientific and artistic perspectives on communication. This new approach is used to reformulate the concepts of Information Theory offering a new theoretical structure for the study of advertising and communication.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there were differences in how males and females responded to hostile and nonsensical humorous advertisements for the same brand. Significant interaction effects between order of presentation, type of humor and gender were discovered. Differences between genders were not consistent across orders of presentation and type of humor. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The paper discusses the importance of the pictorial element in print travel ads. Relevant theory is briefly reviewed and suggests that travel advertisers need to consider the familiarity of their target markets with a vacation destination when deciding on the pictorial elements of print ads. Results from a 2x2 (pictorial representation and level of familiarity of the vacation destination) suggest these factors interactively influence consumer perceptions of and attitudes toward vacation destinations.

This paper defines the current legal status of the use of targeted direct mail advertising by attorneys. It traces the development of landmark Supreme Court decisions from Bates (1977) to Shapero (1988), identifying the posture typically assumed by the state-level bar associations and courts in opposition to the practice, and the essentially "pro advertising" posture of the U.S. Supreme Court. The paper concludes that considerations as diverse as the Court's clarification of the legality of targeted direct mail advertising, societal concern regarding the consumer's ability to make informed choices regarding legal services, the contemporary urban geographic and market orientation of society, and self-interest of attorneys who recognize the potential value of direct mail advertising and its availability and adaptability to their operations auger well for its expanded future use by attorneys.

This paper examines the effect of general health-information regulations on sales volume of five different popular cigarette brands sold in the United States from 1949 to 1985. Although previous research has concentrated on aggregate consumption data, across all brands, it is suggested that individual brand data can and should be considered when formulating public policies regarding cigarettes.

Commercial speech and its relationship to the First Amendment remains a controversial and evolving policy issue. Commercial speech has long come under criticism from philosophers, economists, politicians, and many intellectuals. The practical consequence of these criticisms is the anti-commercial speech movement which seeks to utilize state force to ban or restrict the commercial speech activities of entire industries such as alcoholic beverages and tobacco. Indicative of this attitude is former FTC Chairman Micheal Pertschuk's statement that he "never felt that advertising was a particularly valuable form of speech and hardly what Jefferson and Madison were all about." However, this elitist comment does not stand the test of reason and is unjustified.

The decade of the 1990's will be marked by several significant changes in the U.S. population. One future area of considerable social, political and economic consequence is the continuing rapid growth of the Hispanics who are projected to account for 10% of the total population by mid decade. While the Non-Hispanic population grew by 8.4% between 1980 and 1988, the Hispanic population increased by 34%. Researching Hispanics as a consumer market has a long history of persistent methodological problems. Accurately defining the market, assessing Hispanic consumer needs, and devising effective and appropriate advertising in marketing products and services are all affected by these methodological difficulties. This paper examines these problems in some detail and then presents a case for the use of particular types of focus groups and other qualitative procedures as a means of providing information useful for developing more effective advertisements directed at the Hispanic market.

Advertising's use of psychophysiological measurement indicates the need for organizational and empirical assessment. A typology is presented that positions psychophysiological research by reference to the form and measurement of the dependent variable. The empirical implications of physiological research are discussed. Physiological investigations of cognitive processes are identified as a baseline for advertising researchers, and recommendations and suggestions are presented for future advertising research.

When developing regression equations to explain behavior of different groups, it is most likely that these regression lines will be either converging or diverging. If the point of intersection lies outside the relevant range and if the two lines are relatively far apart, no interpretation problem exists. However, if these lines intersect, or closely approach one another within the relevant range, the application of the Johnson-Neyman Confidence Interval approach is appropriate. This paper presents a brief description of this technique.

In light of the copious research on formal regulation of advertising and the emerging literature on self-regulation, this special topics session focused on aspects of advertising control that have been overlooked in the regulatory discussion and literature. The participants addressed broad cultural considerations that set parameters of the social and legal control within different societies, public criticism as a source of control of advertising, and the ethical milieu that exists within the advertising agency.

If the old adage about big oaks and little acorns is true, the advertising business has much to be concerned about regarding its ethical behavior. Ethical standards for deceptive advertising were virtually non-existent in the years following the Civil War -- when advertising agencies came into being in the U.S. "Let the Buyer Beware" was the rationalization used by the majority of advertisers. The criterion for acceptability was whatever one could persuade a then credulous consumer to believe. Many manufacturers questioned the need for advertising at all -- particularly for quality goods. At a time when few brand names even existed, advertising was used primarily to promote patent medicines and other questionable products. So much for the little acorns. As we entered the 20th Century, Congress responded to widespread criticism of many unscrupulous manufacturing practices and policies by passing several landmark laws to protect the public. However, these laws initially ignored the advertising of the offending products. Sensing the likelihood that the government would inevitably turn its regulatory spotlight on their activities, advertising agencies began to establish industry associations, espousing standards for ethical industry behavior and truth in advertising. They hoped that by taking these precautionary steps, they'd discourage government intervention.

Preventing and penalizing deceptive (false and/or misleading) ads is achieved through four basic social-order institutions whose roles vary from country to country, however.

The presentations today have addressed different levels of concern about ethical standards in advertising. Yet they all point to several questions that are worthy of research by persons concerned with ethics, standards and control of advertising. I would like to pose some questions that our presenters could respond to for next year's Academy meeting and for future publications.

Today, advertising education continues its explosive growth and the advertising pedagogical paradigms evolve -- but the only constant across the United State may be the familiar "Advertising Principles." Whatever the program there's presumably an introductory course.

Rainchecks are one solution to advertised items which are out of stock. The degree to which retailers go out of their way to help the customer is perceived as more or less fair by customers.

Public information campaigns have a long history in the effort to modify public health outcomes. Campaigns have been run to encourage people to wear seat belts, to stop smoking, to refrain from starting drugs, and to change various dietary habits. Equally lengthy has been the commentary arguing that information campaigns are, in and of themselves, unsuccessful, offering explanations for the failures and suggesting improved strategies. Recently, researchers trained in marketing and advertising have begun to contribute their ideas as to the problems with information campaigns and their recommendations as to how to improve them. Much of this work is conducted under the label "social marketing."

The method developed to estimate duplicate audience exposure allows the user to incorporate his judgment and/or best estimate of the probable impact the promotion program's component parts will have.

The purpose of this special topic session is to explore the problems, opportunities, approaches, and other issues relating to the teaching of the Advertising Management course. Some specific areas of interest and questions are: course objectives, theory versus practice, course content, class size, and organization. Five different course structures will be presented.

The purposes of this session were to present information and perspectives to stimulate and guide international advertising research, especially: (1) to identify, define and prioritize research topics and programs, and (2) to discuss and share solutions to methodological problems. Only a few AAA members are currently doing international advertising research, but many members have expressed an interest in extending their research interests internationally. This session provided the opportunity for experienced international advertising researchers to share their expertise with each other, and with those who are interested in broadening their domestic research programs internationally.