HISPANIC ACCULTURATION/ASSIMILATION: THE NEED FOR AN EMIC PERSPECTIVE (pp. 1 - 6, 1992)
Patricia B. Rose

This paper seeks to clarify the concept of assimilation and to better understand the current motivations of advertisers vis-a-vis the Hispanic market. In so doing, the paper throws into question the predominant obsession with Spanish language advertising as the main advertising criterion to the Hispanic market and calls for a broader, motivational view of the market.

Does advertising play an active role in shaping societal values, or is it merely a mirror of society? Whatever the answer, critics and proponents of advertising agree that the prevailing culture of a society can be identified, at least partly, through the examination of what is depicted in advertisements. This study extended earlier discussions of the relationship between materialism and advertising by investigating the depiction of materialism in full-page or larger advertisements in matched magazine samples from Germany and Spain. Each advertisement was coded for, among other things, the most dominant among three themes: "having", "doing" and "being"; and for the most dominant among four appeals: "luxury," "status," "self-improvement," and "utility." The study had the following findings: (a) German advertisements portrayed more "having" themes (more depictions of "terminal" materialism), while Spanish advertisements had more "being" themes; (b) German advertisements used more "luxury" appeals, while Spanish advertisements used more appeals related to "status" and "self-improvement'; (c) model gender differences accounted for some of these differences; (d) more than half the Spanish advertisements, but only one in six German advertisements, used no models at all, although advertisements of both countries using models depicted more females than males. Findings support the assumption that societies at different levels of economic/industrial development may hold different materialistic values. Further, this and other studies of European advertising are important because of the anticipated post-1992 changes in all commercial activities of member nations of the European Community. Whereas a lot of attention has been paid to "harmonizing" advertising-related regulations within the EC, little thought has been given to the advertising content manifest within constraints of those regulations. Differences among advertising practices in the various EC countries will have to be taken into consideration before truly successful Pan-European campaigns, if any, can be implemented.

The controversy surrounding alcohol and tobacco billboard advertising has caused a continuous decline in outdoor spending in these two categories during the past ten years. Angry minority community groups have forced the outdoor industry to self-regulate alcohol and tobacco advertising. The ongoing debate on the advertising of so-called "vice" products toward ethnic minorities will no doubt continue. A content analysis was carried out to examine the types of products advertised in ethnic minority versus Anglo neighborhoods in Detroit and San Antonio. Results indicate that both neighborhoods appear to be receiving similar amounts of tobacco and alcohol advertising. Furthermore, the amount of tobacco and alcohol billboards appears to be related to income level.

The advertising industry has been computerized for many years. Computers have long been on the desks of media planners, strategists, writers, and in the business offices. But typically the last area in an ad agency to become "computerized" has been the creative department. Advertising educators and professionals have only recently begun to realize the potential applications and versatility of the computer as a creative tool. But one thing is certain: no longer is knowing how to use a computer an option for aspiring art directors and copywriters. Those advertising students who combine computer skill with a high level of strategy and idea development, as well as design and copywriting skills, are undoubtedly more marketable than their non-computer-literate peers. Although advertising professionals and educators may not agree entirely as to what degree the computer should be used in the creative process, most agree that the computer has forever changed the advertising business. One of the greatest challenges of advertising professionals and educators today is to take full advantage of this extraordinary, rapidly changing technology. The purpose of the special session was to gather four advertising educators on the cutting edge of the teaching of creative courses using computers to discuss teaching methods and to address some of the basic questions pertaining to the use of computers in teaching advertising creative courses. The four individuals who participated in this session offer somewhat different perspectives on how the computer should be integrated into the classroom, and they represent advertising programs that utilize computers in a variety of ways.

"Intermediate And Advanced Advertising Copy And Layouts"
Patricia Alvey

"Creative Computing"
Jessica Kimbrough, Chair

"A Computer Is Just Another Tool"
Elaine Wagner

Previous studies in the area of puffery have given some indication that puffed advertising may not be as effective as understated advertising. In examining the most recent studies in this area, it was noted that price levels used in test advertisements varied in magnitude with the tested level of puffery in the ad. This study provides additional evidence of the disadvantages of using puffery in advertising, even when price is taken into account. The effects of price were investigated, and while there was some indication that high price levels contributed to negative evaluations, there was little evidence of an interaction effect between the two factors in producing extremely negative evaluations.

At the center of a recent controversy regarding children's television programming are shows created exclusively to promote toys (i.e., toy-based programs). Critics have expressed a multitude of concerns with regard to the impact of toy-based programs on children. For example, the American Academy of Pediatrics has argued that these shows promote violent and aggressive behavior in children. Consumer advocates contend that toy-based programs take advantage of children as consumers, since their selling intent is masked. Others contend that since the objective of toy-based programs is to sell rather than educate, they are replacing more creative and educational children's shows. Finally, developmental experts argue that toy-based programs tend to interfere with children's creative play and learning. While governmental and advocacy groups' views have been well documented, the parental perspective has been largely ignored. This study attempted to summarize parental perceptions of toy-based programs and investigate the possibility that these perceptions may serve as a basis for attitudes toward these shows. Data gathered from 347 mothers of elementary children in three diverse areas in the U.S., suggested that while maternal perceptions of toy-based programs are not favorable, they are not extremely negative (only data gathered from mothers were used, since they have been identified as the primary socializers of children). Further, after controlling for the potential effects of familiarity, results indicate that mothers' perceptions are related to their more general attitudes. Specifically, perceptions that toy-based programs: 1) promote violent and aggressive behavior in children, 2) take advantage of children as consumers, 3) displace more creative and educational programs, and 4) interfere with children's creative play, serve as underlying bases of mothers attitudes. Results may be interpreted to suggest that fewer toy-based programs should be developed. However, marketers and program producers are encouraged to enlist the aid of child development experts or national parent organizations prior to developing toy-based programs.

This is a content analysis of FTC and Lanham Act advertising decisions in which instances were identified of unacceptable evidence or argument offered by advertisers in defense. For example, Listerine defended claims to prevent and cure coughs and colds by offering a comparison test done with its own employees in such a way as to allow their biases to operate. Half used Listerine and half did not, and the employees were told about the two groups and were invited to choose the group in which they would prefer to participate. Representatives of Listerine's company took the witness stand under oath and testified that such study substantiated the ad claims. On the basis of the credentials that qualified them as witnesses, the testifiers must either have known or ought to have known that their testimony was false. The FTC rejected the study as providing no substantiation. The analysis revealed over 100 types of such problems, usually with multiple occurrences per type, indicating that such activity is systematic within the legal process. The instances were collected from reading every item of evidence or argument offered in FTC and Lanham cases since 1970 with respect to certain required types of findings. The two principal types involved the need to show what meaning the ad has for consumers, i.e., the conveyed meaning which consumers see the ad saying, and then the need to show whether those conveyed claims were true or false. A third type of finding, occurring less frequently, involved the need to show whether the conveyed claim was material--in some recent cases evidence of argument has been offered on that point.

The empirical analysis of 500 magazine and 500 TV ads indicates that magazine ads, in comparison to TV ads, are more likely to be unframed, noncharacterized, and search goods oriented. In contrast, TV ads, in comparison to magazine ads, are more likely to be framed, characterized, and experience goods oriented. Findings presented in this study have implications for advertisers in matching media type with message characteristics.

Recent activity by the FDA and Congress has focused on the use of ambiguous words, such as light and natural, on food product labels. These words are also commonly used in advertisements for food products and as brand name extensions. This study presents a content analysis of 63 food ads found in twelve issues of two women's magazines. The results indicate that terms such as "light," "natural," "real," and "trim" vary in the degree to which advertisers present cues to describe or explain these words. In addition, statistically significant differences were found in the amount of copy versus label information directly explaining the terms. The different philosophies of the FDA and FTC, which could create problems for advertisers, are discussed.

This paper presents the result of a latent and manifest content analysis of 2001 film advertisements in newspapers from 1959-1989. The focus of the paper is an analysis of the portrayals of women and the portrayals of sexual and physical intimacies over time.

An area of particular controversy in research on advertising's economic effects is advertising's impact on industrial concentration. Since many believe that an excessively high concentration ratio within an industry is anti-competitive, the argument that advertising leads to higher concentration ratios has been heatedly debated. Unfortunately, research on the topic has not produced consistent results. The purpose of this study is to propose (and provide a preliminary test) of a framework which helps clarify the controversy regarding advertising's effect on industrial concentration.

The focus of this study is advertisements which appeared in national magazines in the United States during World War II. This era is one of advertising history's most fascinating chapters and yet has received little in the way of study--this paper seeks to shed at least some light on the subject. In addition to drawing material from other works, the author conducted a census of Life, Printers' Ink, and Advertising & Selling for the period under study. Primarily concerned with learning how advertisers responded to the unprecedented challenge of advertising during war (that is, how, and why, did advertisers without products advertise?), the author cites advertisements that were uniquely successful as well as those that can be considered "representative." Patriotism, sentimentality and futuristic utopianism certainly all played their parts in the advertising of that time -- yet, as should be expected, our present-day stereotype of flag-waving World War II advertising sits ill on the successes found here. Indeed, the author concludes, effective advertising during World War II as, perhaps, at any time meant first and foremost addressing the needs and concerns of the reader.

This study investigates the attitude/behavior relationship on the issues of solid waste management and the environment, specifically individual household recycling. The paper (1) identifies what knowledge and opinions differentiate recycling from non-recycling households; (2) clusters the various opinions into meaningful groupings; (3) incorporates these clusters into a predictive model of recycling households; and (4) identifies those opinion clusters and specific cognitions which have the greatest predictive power. In their efforts to develop environmental advertising messages with the leverage to change recycling behavior, planners face the dilemma of "persuading the already persuaded." That is, the general public holds very favorable attitudes and beliefs about recycling; yet, many people do not behave in a manner consistent with these positive cognitions. Data for this study were gathered from 498 in-depth interviews with residents of a large southern state. Implications for environmental advertising theory and practice, and specific advertising strategic plan elements, are discussed.

The focus of this paper is how television advertising is processed by viewers and how it works to influence consumer attitudes and purchase intentions. Based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), causal links among cognitive response to the brand (Cb), cognitive response to the ad (Cad), attitude toward the ad (Aad), and purchase intention (PI) were examined.

While numerous studies of attitude toward the ad (Aad) have been published, the literature lacks a comprehensive review of what we know about Aad. In this paper, four issues frequently examined in Aad research are identified and discussed: causal analysis of the Aad construct, antecedents of Aad, time effect on Aad, and measurement validity. After systematically examining previous research pertaining to these four issues, specific guidelines are suggested for directing future research on the Aad construct.

Existing models of cognitive processing and persuasion have emphasized the interaction effect between central arguments and peripheral cues under different levels of involvement. What has been ignored is the additive effect between the two under a high involvement condition. A reanalysis of previous findings suggests an additive effect as well as an interaction effect under high involvement. This issue is pursued in the paper by suggesting two conceptual frame works for cognitive processing and persuasion respectively. Four qualitatively different types of cognitive processing are proposed and five different types of persuasion are suggested from different types of cognitive processing. Three variables are proposed as moderators of different routes of cognitive processing and persuasion: motivation, ability and opportunity. An implication is made about the importance of relevant executional cues in advertising.

This was a panel with no formal papers. An audio transcript is printed. Bob Pulver induces the panel. Ernest Bromley discusses "Acculturation Influence Groups" (AIGs). AIG 1 knows little English, AIG 2 is bicultural, and AIG 3 is pretty much English monolingual. Becky Arreaga discusses the reasons for using integrated markteting with Hispanic consumers. Federico Traeger discusses advertisings dual responsibility to Hispanics: to sell the product and to portray the true Hispanic image.

The structural relationships among the cognitive responses elicited during ad-exposure, the ad-attitude, brand attitude and buying intentions were studied in competing models for celebrity and noncelebrity ads of familiar, established product- brand. Results showed that brand-related cognitions directly influenced brand attitudes only in the noncelebrity ad condition. Ad-attitude was significantly influenced by product-related, source-related, as well as ad-related cognitions in the celebrity ad condition, but by only ad-related and product-related responses in the noncelebrity ad. Further, this overall ad-attitude significantly influenced brand attitude which in turn influenced buying intentions in both types of ads. Structural models using the above variables did not fit the data for the noncelebrity ad of a familiar product well. Additional variables need to be included to understand advertising processing and effects of established brands.

As sports marketing becomes more important to marketers, more research is needed to understand and evaluate its use and effectiveness. One of the least understood aspects of sports marketing is the sponsorship of sports events. The current study reports the results of a survey of both participants and non-participants in the 1990 New York Marathon, in an attempt to assess the impact of corporate sponsorship on consumers' awareness and attitudes. In general, respondents scored high on both recognition and recall measures, and had positive attitudes toward sponsorship. The impact appeared to be greater among participants in the event. Implications for sponsorship are discussed.

To help advertising agencies better position themselves relative to their competitors, previous research has focused on measuring clients' perceptions of the relative importance of various selection criteria. While this approach is helpful in building an understanding of clients' expectations, it is limited because it does not define how clients differentiate agencies. The purpose of this study was to determine (1) if clients perceive differences between agencies and (2) on what criteria clients differentiate agencies. Using a "determinant" attribute approach, this study found that medium- to small-sized clients differentiated agencies on two key factors: (1) quality of people assigned to the account and (2) quality of the creative product.

One of the most widely used methods of teaching and studying business involves the use of specific examples from the world of business. Basically, a business case is a written descriptions of a company's situation at a specific point in time.

Syndicated product-media research services such as SMRB and MRI provide single-source data for matching measured magazine media directly to target markets. Prototyping provides a means of addressing this problem for unmeasured magazine media by using a measured magazine that is judged to be similar as a surrogate for the unmeasured magazine. Typically, media planners select prototypes from groups that are judged to be editorially similar. Alternatively, a quantitative profile-distance has been suggested as a more accurate approach. This paper empirically compares the two approaches to determine whether the profile-distance is indeed better.

This paper examines the current status of models used to estimate the reach and frequency distributions for advertising media schedules. Two categories of issues are examined: 1) model building issues; and 2) model testing issues. In the first category, problems arising in the use of probability models are examined in the Dirichlet, loglinear, and aggregation procedures in magazines; problems arising in broadcast estimation using curve fitting, the beta binomial distribution and poisson binomial are discussed. In the second, issues relating to criterion data sets, sample size and error definition are examined. In conclusion, the need for true multivariate probability models in print and broadcast estimation, the need for standard data sets, the use of smaller sample sizes in testing, and the need for standard error definitions in testing are emphasized.

Magazine media planning depends on syndicated readership data to estimate relative cost efficiency, reach, frequency, and other characteristics of alternative media schedules. When magazines are not included in syndicated readership studies, media planners generally resort to a strategy of "prototyping. " Prototyping uses key data for magazines with similar editorial content in place of data for the measured magazines being considered for a given schedule. Prototyping schemes are groupings of magazines with similar editorial content, generally based on expert judgment. The scheme described in this study uses expert judgment and the results of previous studies to interpret an empirical classification of magazine types based on audience overlap.

In the US, advertisers and marketers have been rushing to capitalize on the public's growing interest in nature and the environment. The question, of course, is does this new trend represent any real progress for the environment or is green marketing just another attempt by commercial interests to capitalize on the ecology movement. While advertising can certainly not be blamed for environmental damage it can, however, be criticized for circulating and recirculating cultural values that harm our perceptions and attitudes toward the natural environment. The purpose of this research was to develop a continuum for advertisements that depict nature. The continuum ranges from ads which show the environment as something of value to those that depict nature and the environment as something to be conquered, exploited, or feared. In addition, the metaphor of the earth as feminine was explored and advertisements that depicted women as animals, meat, or prey were examined and discussed.

Consumers seem to experience some confusion about environmental advertising claims, yet it appears that no research has attempted to investigate the nature of claims that are being made in environmental advertising. This study posits a system for classifying environmental ad claims that includes categories comprised of 1) Product Orientation - The claim focuses on the environmental attributes that a manufactured good or service possesses; 2) Process Orientation - The claim deals with an organization's internal technology, production technique and/or disposal method that yields environmental benefits; 3) Image Orientation - The claim associates an organization with an environmental cause or activity for which there is broad-based public support; and 4) Environmental Fact - The claim involves a statement about the environment (or its condition) which most environmental experts accept as, or believe to be, factual. Three judges used this typology to assess the incidence and type of environmental claims present among 100 magazine advertisements. Analyses across the four classification categories indicated that image orientation claims were most prevalent, followed by environmental facts, product orientation and process orientation claims, respectively. These results indicate that organizations seem to be generating environmental claims that couch themselves as "environmental good citizens" or that state environmental facts, rather than those that extol the ecological virtues of their organization's products or process attributes. This emphasis upon issues/information that is not specifically relevant to an organization's offerings may be a contributor to consumer confusion about environmental advertising.

Less than twenty years ago, studies of ecologically concerned individuals were discounted because a substantial segment of consumers exhibited little or no concern about the pollution aspect of products (Kinnear, Taylor and Ahmed 1974). Things have changed. Americans now rank solid waste disposal, second only to education, as one of the country's most serious problems (Environmental Protection Agency 1989). If marketers, advertisers and policy makers desire to work together in reducing the escalating solid waste stream, their first task is to better understand the consumer who makes individual decisions about products, and thus packaging. The purpose of this paper is to explore differences between black and white consumers with respect to their attitudes and intentions regarding ecologically packaged products which make efficient use of materials and lead to less solid waste. Also, suggestions are made for the roles of advertising, package communications and consumer education in light of these findings.

At the undergraduate level, all Illinois advertising majors take a course titled "Advertising in Contemporary Society," which begins with a discussion of advertising's philosophical context as developed in the first four chapters of Rotzoll and Haefner's Advertising in Contemporary Society.

Differences in personality, intelligence and motivation aside, all students coming from a responsible graduate program in advertising should, I believe, have equivalent exposure to substantive advertising areas which constitute the "corpus" of the discipline.

survey was conducted to explore the cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of negative political advertising on registered voters. The results of the survey indicate that voters lack interest in elections, finding negative advertising uninformative and disapproving of its use. Respondents do express concern regarding election outcomes, however. Bivariate analyses indicate that a variety of both positive and negative correlations exist between affective, cognitive and behavioral variables. Generally, these correlations are low but significant. An age by informativeness interaction effect reveals that older voters who find negative political advertising the most informative appear to be less inclined to actually vote. Conversely, older voters who find negative political advertising less informative appear to be more inclined to actually vote.

The average voter typically reports strong dislike of the use of negative political advertising during campaigns. Previous research has shown that the usage of negative advertisements may simultaneously produce both favorable and unfavorable effects for the candidates. Attempts to gain greater insights regarding the effects of political advertising often produce contradictory and paradoxical findings. The focus of this article is to offer a greater understanding of the relationship between voter attitudes toward political advertising and the salience of campaign issues over time. Utilizing a three-wave panel study of a gubernatorial campaign in the southwest in 1990, 238 respondents are examined in terms of their level of issue concern against their level of agreement with statements about political advertisements. The statements cover such areas as the learning and accuracy of information, entertainment value, and helpfulness of political advertising in making voting decisions. The salience of eleven issues is examined. The results of the study suggest that voter attitudes toward political advertising are fluid over time, are specifically associated with particular issue concerns, and are continually in a process of reformulation depending upon the saliency of a particular issue.

Subjects differing in political alienation and political interest read information about a campaign and then viewed four campaign ads: one positive and one negative for each of two candidates. Ads for one candidate focused on campaign issues while ads for the other candidate focused on candidate image. After viewing each ad, subjects evaluated both the ad's source and the source's opponent. Results showed that positive ads affected sources but not opponents, while negative ads primarily affected opponents. While positive issue ads resulted in more favorable attitudes than positive image ads, however negative image ads tended to be more effective than negative issue ads. A complex interaction of the personality variables with the sequence of image versus issue ads suggested that ad orientation can affect the processing of political ads.

An assessment of the exposure potential that advertisements in sports stadiums receive through live and/or pre-recorded media coverage was examined through content analysis of sports telecasts for four different sports. Results showed significant exposure time (up to five total minutes during a 15-minute segment) for in-stadium advertisements placed within the camera angles of broadcast coverage. The article proposes a theoretical foundation for explaining the potential effects of such exposures and how they may differ from exposure to conventional advertising strategies. The article outlines a method for studying the actualized effects of these exposures for advertisers in the future.

The study uses in-home observations to examine audience behavior during a commercial break. Additionally, the study examines the relationship between program viewing and commercial viewing. Results indicate that for traditional programming, the expanded media environment may not have altered the way individuals approach commercials. The finding is different from recent studies examining newer forms of programming in the media environment.

This research details the findings of a recent survey of leading national advertisers and their views on the impact of electronic zipping (fast forwarding through commercials when viewing taped programs). Today the majority of television viewers have access to remote controls and VCR's. Taping of programming and subsequent zipping of commercials during playback have become routine practices. While commercial avoidance is not a new phenomenon, zipping does present viewers with an easier means of avoiding commercials. Therefore, the researchers sought to assess advertisers' perceptions of and reactions to electronic zipping. The advertisers indicated they are concerned about the effects of zipping; however, few have taken proactive measures to combat the impact of zipping. For example, only a few of the advertiser respondents have made modifications to their advertising strategies as a means of countering electronic zipping. Advertisers implementing content modifications have primarily limited those changes to creative enhancements (attempting to develop more entertaining commercials) and product dominance (making the advertised product appear on the screen for an extended period of time).

There has long been a debate over whether advertising should be considered an art or a science (cf., Moran 1986; Bogart 1986). Those involved in creative development consider it as the former, while business types focus far more on the numbers. This 'split' has been evident in the research side of the business too, with some people convinced that if an hypothesis cannot be rejected or accepted based on quantitative evidence then it does not count, while others believe in the value of more subjective, evaluative techniques. Giambattista Vico, the eighteenth century historian, argued that only people can understand people through what he called "intuitive understanding" (Kover 1983). Qualitative research may be defined as a method for obtaining greater and deeper insights into how consumers think, feel, and act. Its overall goal is not to emphasize the importance of developing general social laws or concepts, but rather to focus on the unique situational nature of the meaning of social phenomena. As such, it acts as one of the tools in the advertising or marketing researchers' arsenal. Its purpose is both to supplement information that can be gained quantitatively and to provide answers to questions that cannot be found solely by statistical methods. Yet little research is available on qualitative research itself. How important is it - or should it be - both within the advertising industry and for educators and researchers? What insights can be gained from using techniques such as focus groups, naturalistic observation, or historical studies, for example, that we are unable to obtain otherwise? And what are some of the drawbacks of these methods? This session examines the quality and use of qualitative research from multiple perspectives. Using a combination of industry and academic participants, we hope to provide both practical and theoretical viewpoints on how qualitative research can, is, and should be used.

For years, advertising practitioners and academicians have focused their attention on the successes and failures of advertising campaigns across counties or continents. Fueled by the imminent arrival of Europe 1992, the rapidly changing eastern Europe, and, to a lesser extent, Hong Kong 1997, this attention has now carried with it almost a sense of urgency.

"Traditional vs. Western Appeals in Chinese Magazine Advertisements: Hong Kong and Taiwan"
Yorgo Pasadeos and Mei-Chiung Chi

"From Italy to North America: Using Functional Equivalence to Develop an Advertising Concept with International Appeal (The Case of Parmigiano- Reggiano)"
Fiona Chew, Joanne Lenweaver, and David Lenweaver

"Global Markets and Standardized Advertising: Is it Happening? An Analysis of Common Brands in USA and UK"
Abhilasha Mehta

"The Youth Market: A Study of American and Japanese Students as Consumers"
Jyotika Ramaprasad and Kazumi Hasegawa

The paper examines the nature and effects of realism as a dramatic mode in "slice of life" advertisements. It turns to classical Aristotelian criticism to identify the raw materials of modern realistic drama--plot, character, setting, theme, and dialogue. Next, it analyzes relationships among the elements to discover how Aristotle's principles of imitation of action, unity of action, and magnitude are used in advertisements. Last, it proposes questions for future research on slice of life advertising effects on consumers' attention, memory, and emotional responses.

We know that consumers are influenced by perceptions of what others have and do. Some of these perceptions are determined via direct experience, while others are determined through less direct representations. One of the primary purposes of advertising, in its quest to attract attention and influence behavior, is to create a perception of the targeted group member (i.e., housewife, business executive, teenager, happy family), with a problem (then halitosis, now gingivitis) that is widespread, and thus not too deviant, and can only be remedied by the advertised brand. From the 1920's on, this has been the essential premise of "reason why" and "slice of life" advertising (Fox, 1984; Liess, Kline, and Jhally, 1988). Such a perceptual manipulation by advertising results in a variety of effects. First of all, consumers are persuaded to believe that a particular "problem" is truly a problem. For example, the classic commercial which pointed up the problem of "ring around the collar" sought to instill in the minds of consumers that this unsightly mess was truly something to be battled with extreme force. Secondly, consumers are persuaded that the brand advertised is the preferred answer to the particular problem. In other words, it is Wisk that best eliminates "ring around the collar". Finally, a third effect is to create the impression that the problem is widespread. This implies a high probability that the individual audience member may suffer from the problem. This is especially important when attempting to convince consumers of a problem which is not always readily evidence such as "refrigerator odor" and the unseen germs which cause "housatosis". Several researchers (e.g., Levy, 1959; McCracken, 1996; Mick, 1986) have addressed the role of advertisements in creating symbolic and cultural beliefs in consumers. However, little has been written which addresses beliefs about more concrete personal problems which advertisers purport to be able to solve. This study attempts to construct a theoretical framework which can adequately deal with these issues, and presents the results of a study designed to assess the perceptual effects of advertising claims. This study attempts to investigate the long term effect of advertising on perceptions of the incidence of personal and social problems frequently addressed in television advertising. The hypothesis put forth is that total television viewing, as an indirect and unobtrusive measure of exposure to advertising messages, will correlate positively with perceptions of the prevalence of such problems as gingivitis, bladder control problems, high blood pressure, dandruff, etc. The theoretical reasoning is that frequent exposure to the advertisements makes the particular problem salient or highly accessible in memory. Following the logic of the Kahneman and Tversky's work on heuristics (for reviews see Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky 1982; Sherman and Corty 1984), this increased accessibility may result in a higher frequency estimate. Further, this effect should be most pronounced for those with no direct experience with the particular problem. The results obtained tentatively support these hypotheses.

This qualitative study seeks to understand the meaning of alcoholic-beverage advertising from the perspective of the recovering alcoholic. The research is significant in that the numbers of individuals who meet the diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse and dependence are predicted to rise to 15.4 million by the year 2000. Additionally, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services predicted that in 1988 alone alcohol abuse and dependency would cost the nation $70.3 billion in lost output and work days, treatment and support of those persons with alcohol problems, and alcohol-related deaths. To promote beer, wine and liquor, U.S. advertisers spent $1.04 billion through measured media in 1990. Despite this rather large expenditure, research at both the aggregate and individual levels fails to demonstrate a strong relationship between advertising and alcohol consumption. A variety of audiences and research techniques has been employed to test this relationship; however, none has studied in the natural setting the effects of advertising on the recovery process for alcoholics. This study asked, therefore: does advertising in some way interfere with the recovery process for alcoholics; how do alcoholics deal with advertising messages that tell them drinking is part of the "good life" when they know that to recover fully they must not drink; and, what if anything, does alcoholic-beverage advertising mean to this group? To understand the context within which alcoholics interpret their experience, 20 participants (15 males and 5 females) ranging in age from 25 to 64, were recruited from five alcohol-dependency treatment programs. The participants had been in recovery anywhere from three weeks to 20 years. Interviews typically began with the statement, "Tell me about your recovery process," and then proceeded to areas that were of interest to the participants. All interviews were anonymous, tape recorded, transcribed and entered in the computer program ETHNOGRAPH for analysis. Participants' comments regarding advertising were coded by the three researchers into five thematic categories: 1) triggers -- the impulse to drink can be triggered by a variety of factors, one of which is advertising; 2) images and techniques -- music and party scenes are most troubling to alcoholics: 3) avoidance/ reinterpretation -- alcoholics who see that they are affected by advertising consciously avoid or reinterpret its message; 4) diminishing influence -- the influence of advertising seems to diminish with length of time in recovery; 5) no effect-some alcoholics indicated that their recovery is not affected by advertising. These insights were shared with the alcohol counselors from the various treatment centers. Their interpretations of the process supported those produced through the analysis of the transcripts. Public policy implications for the recovery process are also discussed.

As television viewers gain more control over their viewing environment and become more sophisticated in avoiding commercials, the thought processes and behaviors engaged in by these viewers are of ever-increasing importance to advertisers. Previous research has suggested that one approach for gaining greater understanding lies in exploration of viewers' cognitive scripts, and that such research should focus on commercial breaks within the context of television viewing rather than limiting it to the story sequences within specific advertisements. This paper reports preliminary results from a script elicitation study regarding viewer activity during commercial breaks. Findings suggest that many viewers anticipate commercial breaks and employ methods of judging their length. Informants reported engaging in purposeful behavior to avoid commercials. Further, it appears from these findings that conscious decisions are made regarding which commercials to watch, based on explicit criteria, and about alternative activities carried out when not watching. It is inferred that a cognitive script (or set of scripts) exists for television viewing, and it is suggested that this script should be validated using accepted procedures. Further, future research is advocated using ethnographic methods to gain richer information and insight into the phenomenon of television viewing.

While there has been a great deal of interest in personal values and their relationship to consumer behavior over the last two decades, there has only been a moderate amount of concern with the extent to which values are expressed in advertising. Given the level of interest in the relationship between values and consumer behavior, it would seem that the extent to which values are expressed in advertising and how they are expressed is an important research question in this area. While Pollay (1983) has developed a system for coding the particular values that are expressed, little work has been done on how values are expressed in advertising. This paper suggests a method of determining and coding the different ways values are expressed in the advertising message. This coding scheme is a set of dimensions on which an advertising execution can be evaluated. This method will provide academic researchers with a way to evaluate how different advertising elements work together to express a value. Practitioners will have a coding scheme that will allow them to assess the degree of value appeals in their advertising.

Recent studies have asked whether emotional feelings elicited by commercials affect attitudes toward brands only through their effects on liking commercials (Aad), or whether there are direct effects of emotional feelings on attitude toward the brand (Abr). The present study extends investigation of these questions by looking at six separate kinds of emotion-eliciting commercials (Drive Surgency, Calm-Peacefulness, Warm, Poignant, Disgust-Anxiety, and Neutral) and by considering for each one the effects of emotional response (i.e., pleasure and arousal) in the processing flow. Results indicate that the pleasure dimension of emotion accounts for most of the variance in Aad for all the types of commercials, including Neutrals. Arousal effects overlap to a large degree with Pleasure effects, but even Arousal does have a small, but statistically significant effect on Aad for all categories. Aad accounts for the most Abr variance, but for Poignants, Warms, and Calm-Peacefuls, pleasure and arousal, account for small but direct effects on Abr.

The purpose of the panel was to describe the profound changes in structure and function of U.S. advertising agency research departments in recent years and to discuss the status of consumer representation in advertising organizations. The rise of British-style account planning in the U.S. as a means of obtaining the consumer viewpoint in the development of advertising was documented by way of a review of industry surveys and practitioner opinion. The second focus of discussion was how academics can integrate the philosophies and techniques of consumer representation into an advertising curriculum.

"Account Planning: A History, Description, and Evaluation of its Use in U.S. Agencies"
Alice Kendrick and Kimberly Dee

"The Creative Approach to Insightful Research"
Sandra Moriarity

"Who's Minding the Consumer? A Consumer Insight Approach to Education of Advertising Students"
Lisa Fortini-Campbell

"Start an Account Planning Department"
Hart Weichselbaum

Given the bottom-line orientation of advertising in the last years of the 20th Century and the excessive clutter in the media, it is time to review the place of aesthetic creativity in message strategies. This article models the relationship between artistry and marketplace impact. It also focuses on analyzing the high artistry/high selling power quadrant of the model to determine if aesthetic or creative advertising can be found that also has marketplace impact.

This paper develops and tests a typology of musical elements in television commercials. The typology that is developed is more comprehensive than previous attempts at classification. Music in commercials is coded according to structural, stylistic and mnemonic devices. The typology is tested on a sample of 292 network television commercials. Issues of intercoder reliability are examined and implications for effects research is discussed.

Self-esteem has been proposed as a potentially powerful form of advertising appeal. Self-esteem refers to how people feel about themselves and can be distinguished from self-concept which is a more cognitive construct. This study examines comparative preference and rating scores for self-esteem appeals versus product benefit appeals. Adults appear to like self-esteem appeals at least as much as product benefit appeals. Younger adults are more likely to favor self-esteem appeals, but subjects' own self-esteem scores were generally unrelated to appeal ratings. Suggestions for the future study of self-esteem appeals are provided.

The intent of this session was to address the concerns of both academics and professionals regarding the purpose of graduate advertising education. This session discussed whether or not a Master's degree in advertising offers any "value added" over a Bachelor's degree. As advertising education continues to grow, this issue becomes one of greater concern for academics. If a student with a Bachelor's in Advertising asks whether or not it would be advantageous to obtain a Master's in Advertising, what should we respond? If asked whether it is better to get a Master's in Advertising or a Master's in Business Administration, what is the best answer? If the student has a Bachelor's degree in some other discipline (e.g., English, art, etc.) would that student do better to pursue a second Bachelor's degree, in advertising, or an MA. in advertising? These are the kinds of questions discussed in the session that brought together four papers which presented the perspective of both advertising educators and practitioners.

"Advertising Agency Views on Graduate Education in Advertising"
Jef I. Richards and Patricia A. Stout

"An Agency View of Graduate Advertising Education (or An Exercise in Fence Sitting)"
Helen Katz

"Graduate Education in Advertising - Pedagogy, Promise, and Peril"
Kim Rotzoll

"New Approaches to Graduate Education in Advertising and Public Relations"
John Eighmey

Advertising's relentless priority is to the current, but we lose much when we succumb. Advertising and its denizens have been someplace. It is, arguably, only when we understand where and why that we can fully understand and teach where we are now and where, through the currents and spasms of history, we are directed.

HISPANIC ACCULTURATION/ASSIMILATION: THE NEED FOR AN EMIC PERSPECTIVE (pp. 1 - 6, 1992)
Patricia B. Rose

This paper seeks to clarify the concept of assimilation and to better understand the current motivations of advertisers vis-a-vis the Hispanic market. In so doing, the paper throws into question the predominant obsession with Spanish language advertising as the main advertising criterion to the Hispanic market and calls for a broader, motivational view of the market.

Does advertising play an active role in shaping societal values, or is it merely a mirror of society? Whatever the answer, critics and proponents of advertising agree that the prevailing culture of a society can be identified, at least partly, through the examination of what is depicted in advertisements. This study extended earlier discussions of the relationship between materialism and advertising by investigating the depiction of materialism in full-page or larger advertisements in matched magazine samples from Germany and Spain. Each advertisement was coded for, among other things, the most dominant among three themes: "having", "doing" and "being"; and for the most dominant among four appeals: "luxury," "status," "self-improvement," and "utility." The study had the following findings: (a) German advertisements portrayed more "having" themes (more depictions of "terminal" materialism), while Spanish advertisements had more "being" themes; (b) German advertisements used more "luxury" appeals, while Spanish advertisements used more appeals related to "status" and "self-improvement'; (c) model gender differences accounted for some of these differences; (d) more than half the Spanish advertisements, but only one in six German advertisements, used no models at all, although advertisements of both countries using models depicted more females than males. Findings support the assumption that societies at different levels of economic/industrial development may hold different materialistic values. Further, this and other studies of European advertising are important because of the anticipated post-1992 changes in all commercial activities of member nations of the European Community. Whereas a lot of attention has been paid to "harmonizing" advertising-related regulations within the EC, little thought has been given to the advertising content manifest within constraints of those regulations. Differences among advertising practices in the various EC countries will have to be taken into consideration before truly successful Pan-European campaigns, if any, can be implemented.

The controversy surrounding alcohol and tobacco billboard advertising has caused a continuous decline in outdoor spending in these two categories during the past ten years. Angry minority community groups have forced the outdoor industry to self-regulate alcohol and tobacco advertising. The ongoing debate on the advertising of so-called "vice" products toward ethnic minorities will no doubt continue. A content analysis was carried out to examine the types of products advertised in ethnic minority versus Anglo neighborhoods in Detroit and San Antonio. Results indicate that both neighborhoods appear to be receiving similar amounts of tobacco and alcohol advertising. Furthermore, the amount of tobacco and alcohol billboards appears to be related to income level.

The advertising industry has been computerized for many years. Computers have long been on the desks of media planners, strategists, writers, and in the business offices. But typically the last area in an ad agency to become "computerized" has been the creative department. Advertising educators and professionals have only recently begun to realize the potential applications and versatility of the computer as a creative tool. But one thing is certain: no longer is knowing how to use a computer an option for aspiring art directors and copywriters. Those advertising students who combine computer skill with a high level of strategy and idea development, as well as design and copywriting skills, are undoubtedly more marketable than their non-computer-literate peers. Although advertising professionals and educators may not agree entirely as to what degree the computer should be used in the creative process, most agree that the computer has forever changed the advertising business. One of the greatest challenges of advertising professionals and educators today is to take full advantage of this extraordinary, rapidly changing technology. The purpose of the special session was to gather four advertising educators on the cutting edge of the teaching of creative courses using computers to discuss teaching methods and to address some of the basic questions pertaining to the use of computers in teaching advertising creative courses. The four individuals who participated in this session offer somewhat different perspectives on how the computer should be integrated into the classroom, and they represent advertising programs that utilize computers in a variety of ways.

"Intermediate And Advanced Advertising Copy And Layouts"
Patricia Alvey

"Creative Computing"
Jessica Kimbrough, Chair

"A Computer Is Just Another Tool"
Elaine Wagner

Previous studies in the area of puffery have given some indication that puffed advertising may not be as effective as understated advertising. In examining the most recent studies in this area, it was noted that price levels used in test advertisements varied in magnitude with the tested level of puffery in the ad. This study provides additional evidence of the disadvantages of using puffery in advertising, even when price is taken into account. The effects of price were investigated, and while there was some indication that high price levels contributed to negative evaluations, there was little evidence of an interaction effect between the two factors in producing extremely negative evaluations.

At the center of a recent controversy regarding children's television programming are shows created exclusively to promote toys (i.e., toy-based programs). Critics have expressed a multitude of concerns with regard to the impact of toy-based programs on children. For example, the American Academy of Pediatrics has argued that these shows promote violent and aggressive behavior in children. Consumer advocates contend that toy-based programs take advantage of children as consumers, since their selling intent is masked. Others contend that since the objective of toy-based programs is to sell rather than educate, they are replacing more creative and educational children's shows. Finally, developmental experts argue that toy-based programs tend to interfere with children's creative play and learning. While governmental and advocacy groups' views have been well documented, the parental perspective has been largely ignored. This study attempted to summarize parental perceptions of toy-based programs and investigate the possibility that these perceptions may serve as a basis for attitudes toward these shows. Data gathered from 347 mothers of elementary children in three diverse areas in the U.S., suggested that while maternal perceptions of toy-based programs are not favorable, they are not extremely negative (only data gathered from mothers were used, since they have been identified as the primary socializers of children). Further, after controlling for the potential effects of familiarity, results indicate that mothers' perceptions are related to their more general attitudes. Specifically, perceptions that toy-based programs: 1) promote violent and aggressive behavior in children, 2) take advantage of children as consumers, 3) displace more creative and educational programs, and 4) interfere with children's creative play, serve as underlying bases of mothers attitudes. Results may be interpreted to suggest that fewer toy-based programs should be developed. However, marketers and program producers are encouraged to enlist the aid of child development experts or national parent organizations prior to developing toy-based programs.

This is a content analysis of FTC and Lanham Act advertising decisions in which instances were identified of unacceptable evidence or argument offered by advertisers in defense. For example, Listerine defended claims to prevent and cure coughs and colds by offering a comparison test done with its own employees in such a way as to allow their biases to operate. Half used Listerine and half did not, and the employees were told about the two groups and were invited to choose the group in which they would prefer to participate. Representatives of Listerine's company took the witness stand under oath and testified that such study substantiated the ad claims. On the basis of the credentials that qualified them as witnesses, the testifiers must either have known or ought to have known that their testimony was false. The FTC rejected the study as providing no substantiation. The analysis revealed over 100 types of such problems, usually with multiple occurrences per type, indicating that such activity is systematic within the legal process. The instances were collected from reading every item of evidence or argument offered in FTC and Lanham cases since 1970 with respect to certain required types of findings. The two principal types involved the need to show what meaning the ad has for consumers, i.e., the conveyed meaning which consumers see the ad saying, and then the need to show whether those conveyed claims were true or false. A third type of finding, occurring less frequently, involved the need to show whether the conveyed claim was material--in some recent cases evidence of argument has been offered on that point.

The empirical analysis of 500 magazine and 500 TV ads indicates that magazine ads, in comparison to TV ads, are more likely to be unframed, noncharacterized, and search goods oriented. In contrast, TV ads, in comparison to magazine ads, are more likely to be framed, characterized, and experience goods oriented. Findings presented in this study have implications for advertisers in matching media type with message characteristics.

Recent activity by the FDA and Congress has focused on the use of ambiguous words, such as light and natural, on food product labels. These words are also commonly used in advertisements for food products and as brand name extensions. This study presents a content analysis of 63 food ads found in twelve issues of two women's magazines. The results indicate that terms such as "light," "natural," "real," and "trim" vary in the degree to which advertisers present cues to describe or explain these words. In addition, statistically significant differences were found in the amount of copy versus label information directly explaining the terms. The different philosophies of the FDA and FTC, which could create problems for advertisers, are discussed.

This paper presents the result of a latent and manifest content analysis of 2001 film advertisements in newspapers from 1959-1989. The focus of the paper is an analysis of the portrayals of women and the portrayals of sexual and physical intimacies over time.

An area of particular controversy in research on advertising's economic effects is advertising's impact on industrial concentration. Since many believe that an excessively high concentration ratio within an industry is anti-competitive, the argument that advertising leads to higher concentration ratios has been heatedly debated. Unfortunately, research on the topic has not produced consistent results. The purpose of this study is to propose (and provide a preliminary test) of a framework which helps clarify the controversy regarding advertising's effect on industrial concentration.

The focus of this study is advertisements which appeared in national magazines in the United States during World War II. This era is one of advertising history's most fascinating chapters and yet has received little in the way of study--this paper seeks to shed at least some light on the subject. In addition to drawing material from other works, the author conducted a census of Life, Printers' Ink, and Advertising & Selling for the period under study. Primarily concerned with learning how advertisers responded to the unprecedented challenge of advertising during war (that is, how, and why, did advertisers without products advertise?), the author cites advertisements that were uniquely successful as well as those that can be considered "representative." Patriotism, sentimentality and futuristic utopianism certainly all played their parts in the advertising of that time -- yet, as should be expected, our present-day stereotype of flag-waving World War II advertising sits ill on the successes found here. Indeed, the author concludes, effective advertising during World War II as, perhaps, at any time meant first and foremost addressing the needs and concerns of the reader.

This study investigates the attitude/behavior relationship on the issues of solid waste management and the environment, specifically individual household recycling. The paper (1) identifies what knowledge and opinions differentiate recycling from non-recycling households; (2) clusters the various opinions into meaningful groupings; (3) incorporates these clusters into a predictive model of recycling households; and (4) identifies those opinion clusters and specific cognitions which have the greatest predictive power. In their efforts to develop environmental advertising messages with the leverage to change recycling behavior, planners face the dilemma of "persuading the already persuaded." That is, the general public holds very favorable attitudes and beliefs about recycling; yet, many people do not behave in a manner consistent with these positive cognitions. Data for this study were gathered from 498 in-depth interviews with residents of a large southern state. Implications for environmental advertising theory and practice, and specific advertising strategic plan elements, are discussed.

The focus of this paper is how television advertising is processed by viewers and how it works to influence consumer attitudes and purchase intentions. Based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), causal links among cognitive response to the brand (Cb), cognitive response to the ad (Cad), attitude toward the ad (Aad), and purchase intention (PI) were examined.

While numerous studies of attitude toward the ad (Aad) have been published, the literature lacks a comprehensive review of what we know about Aad. In this paper, four issues frequently examined in Aad research are identified and discussed: causal analysis of the Aad construct, antecedents of Aad, time effect on Aad, and measurement validity. After systematically examining previous research pertaining to these four issues, specific guidelines are suggested for directing future research on the Aad construct.

Existing models of cognitive processing and persuasion have emphasized the interaction effect between central arguments and peripheral cues under different levels of involvement. What has been ignored is the additive effect between the two under a high involvement condition. A reanalysis of previous findings suggests an additive effect as well as an interaction effect under high involvement. This issue is pursued in the paper by suggesting two conceptual frame works for cognitive processing and persuasion respectively. Four qualitatively different types of cognitive processing are proposed and five different types of persuasion are suggested from different types of cognitive processing. Three variables are proposed as moderators of different routes of cognitive processing and persuasion: motivation, ability and opportunity. An implication is made about the importance of relevant executional cues in advertising.

This was a panel with no formal papers. An audio transcript is printed. Bob Pulver induces the panel. Ernest Bromley discusses "Acculturation Influence Groups" (AIGs). AIG 1 knows little English, AIG 2 is bicultural, and AIG 3 is pretty much English monolingual. Becky Arreaga discusses the reasons for using integrated markteting with Hispanic consumers. Federico Traeger discusses advertisings dual responsibility to Hispanics: to sell the product and to portray the true Hispanic image.

The structural relationships among the cognitive responses elicited during ad-exposure, the ad-attitude, brand attitude and buying intentions were studied in competing models for celebrity and noncelebrity ads of familiar, established product- brand. Results showed that brand-related cognitions directly influenced brand attitudes only in the noncelebrity ad condition. Ad-attitude was significantly influenced by product-related, source-related, as well as ad-related cognitions in the celebrity ad condition, but by only ad-related and product-related responses in the noncelebrity ad. Further, this overall ad-attitude significantly influenced brand attitude which in turn influenced buying intentions in both types of ads. Structural models using the above variables did not fit the data for the noncelebrity ad of a familiar product well. Additional variables need to be included to understand advertising processing and effects of established brands.

As sports marketing becomes more important to marketers, more research is needed to understand and evaluate its use and effectiveness. One of the least understood aspects of sports marketing is the sponsorship of sports events. The current study reports the results of a survey of both participants and non-participants in the 1990 New York Marathon, in an attempt to assess the impact of corporate sponsorship on consumers' awareness and attitudes. In general, respondents scored high on both recognition and recall measures, and had positive attitudes toward sponsorship. The impact appeared to be greater among participants in the event. Implications for sponsorship are discussed.

To help advertising agencies better position themselves relative to their competitors, previous research has focused on measuring clients' perceptions of the relative importance of various selection criteria. While this approach is helpful in building an understanding of clients' expectations, it is limited because it does not define how clients differentiate agencies. The purpose of this study was to determine (1) if clients perceive differences between agencies and (2) on what criteria clients differentiate agencies. Using a "determinant" attribute approach, this study found that medium- to small-sized clients differentiated agencies on two key factors: (1) quality of people assigned to the account and (2) quality of the creative product.

One of the most widely used methods of teaching and studying business involves the use of specific examples from the world of business. Basically, a business case is a written descriptions of a company's situation at a specific point in time.

Syndicated product-media research services such as SMRB and MRI provide single-source data for matching measured magazine media directly to target markets. Prototyping provides a means of addressing this problem for unmeasured magazine media by using a measured magazine that is judged to be similar as a surrogate for the unmeasured magazine. Typically, media planners select prototypes from groups that are judged to be editorially similar. Alternatively, a quantitative profile-distance has been suggested as a more accurate approach. This paper empirically compares the two approaches to determine whether the profile-distance is indeed better.

This paper examines the current status of models used to estimate the reach and frequency distributions for advertising media schedules. Two categories of issues are examined: 1) model building issues; and 2) model testing issues. In the first category, problems arising in the use of probability models are examined in the Dirichlet, loglinear, and aggregation procedures in magazines; problems arising in broadcast estimation using curve fitting, the beta binomial distribution and poisson binomial are discussed. In the second, issues relating to criterion data sets, sample size and error definition are examined. In conclusion, the need for true multivariate probability models in print and broadcast estimation, the need for standard data sets, the use of smaller sample sizes in testing, and the need for standard error definitions in testing are emphasized.

Magazine media planning depends on syndicated readership data to estimate relative cost efficiency, reach, frequency, and other characteristics of alternative media schedules. When magazines are not included in syndicated readership studies, media planners generally resort to a strategy of "prototyping. " Prototyping uses key data for magazines with similar editorial content in place of data for the measured magazines being considered for a given schedule. Prototyping schemes are groupings of magazines with similar editorial content, generally based on expert judgment. The scheme described in this study uses expert judgment and the results of previous studies to interpret an empirical classification of magazine types based on audience overlap.

In the US, advertisers and marketers have been rushing to capitalize on the public's growing interest in nature and the environment. The question, of course, is does this new trend represent any real progress for the environment or is green marketing just another attempt by commercial interests to capitalize on the ecology movement. While advertising can certainly not be blamed for environmental damage it can, however, be criticized for circulating and recirculating cultural values that harm our perceptions and attitudes toward the natural environment. The purpose of this research was to develop a continuum for advertisements that depict nature. The continuum ranges from ads which show the environment as something of value to those that depict nature and the environment as something to be conquered, exploited, or feared. In addition, the metaphor of the earth as feminine was explored and advertisements that depicted women as animals, meat, or prey were examined and discussed.

Consumers seem to experience some confusion about environmental advertising claims, yet it appears that no research has attempted to investigate the nature of claims that are being made in environmental advertising. This study posits a system for classifying environmental ad claims that includes categories comprised of 1) Product Orientation - The claim focuses on the environmental attributes that a manufactured good or service possesses; 2) Process Orientation - The claim deals with an organization's internal technology, production technique and/or disposal method that yields environmental benefits; 3) Image Orientation - The claim associates an organization with an environmental cause or activity for which there is broad-based public support; and 4) Environmental Fact - The claim involves a statement about the environment (or its condition) which most environmental experts accept as, or believe to be, factual. Three judges used this typology to assess the incidence and type of environmental claims present among 100 magazine advertisements. Analyses across the four classification categories indicated that image orientation claims were most prevalent, followed by environmental facts, product orientation and process orientation claims, respectively. These results indicate that organizations seem to be generating environmental claims that couch themselves as "environmental good citizens" or that state environmental facts, rather than those that extol the ecological virtues of their organization's products or process attributes. This emphasis upon issues/information that is not specifically relevant to an organization's offerings may be a contributor to consumer confusion about environmental advertising.

Less than twenty years ago, studies of ecologically concerned individuals were discounted because a substantial segment of consumers exhibited little or no concern about the pollution aspect of products (Kinnear, Taylor and Ahmed 1974). Things have changed. Americans now rank solid waste disposal, second only to education, as one of the country's most serious problems (Environmental Protection Agency 1989). If marketers, advertisers and policy makers desire to work together in reducing the escalating solid waste stream, their first task is to better understand the consumer who makes individual decisions about products, and thus packaging. The purpose of this paper is to explore differences between black and white consumers with respect to their attitudes and intentions regarding ecologically packaged products which make efficient use of materials and lead to less solid waste. Also, suggestions are made for the roles of advertising, package communications and consumer education in light of these findings.

At the undergraduate level, all Illinois advertising majors take a course titled "Advertising in Contemporary Society," which begins with a discussion of advertising's philosophical context as developed in the first four chapters of Rotzoll and Haefner's Advertising in Contemporary Society.

Differences in personality, intelligence and motivation aside, all students coming from a responsible graduate program in advertising should, I believe, have equivalent exposure to substantive advertising areas which constitute the "corpus" of the discipline.

survey was conducted to explore the cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of negative political advertising on registered voters. The results of the survey indicate that voters lack interest in elections, finding negative advertising uninformative and disapproving of its use. Respondents do express concern regarding election outcomes, however. Bivariate analyses indicate that a variety of both positive and negative correlations exist between affective, cognitive and behavioral variables. Generally, these correlations are low but significant. An age by informativeness interaction effect reveals that older voters who find negative political advertising the most informative appear to be less inclined to actually vote. Conversely, older voters who find negative political advertising less informative appear to be more inclined to actually vote.

The average voter typically reports strong dislike of the use of negative political advertising during campaigns. Previous research has shown that the usage of negative advertisements may simultaneously produce both favorable and unfavorable effects for the candidates. Attempts to gain greater insights regarding the effects of political advertising often produce contradictory and paradoxical findings. The focus of this article is to offer a greater understanding of the relationship between voter attitudes toward political advertising and the salience of campaign issues over time. Utilizing a three-wave panel study of a gubernatorial campaign in the southwest in 1990, 238 respondents are examined in terms of their level of issue concern against their level of agreement with statements about political advertisements. The statements cover such areas as the learning and accuracy of information, entertainment value, and helpfulness of political advertising in making voting decisions. The salience of eleven issues is examined. The results of the study suggest that voter attitudes toward political advertising are fluid over time, are specifically associated with particular issue concerns, and are continually in a process of reformulation depending upon the saliency of a particular issue.

Subjects differing in political alienation and political interest read information about a campaign and then viewed four campaign ads: one positive and one negative for each of two candidates. Ads for one candidate focused on campaign issues while ads for the other candidate focused on candidate image. After viewing each ad, subjects evaluated both the ad's source and the source's opponent. Results showed that positive ads affected sources but not opponents, while negative ads primarily affected opponents. While positive issue ads resulted in more favorable attitudes than positive image ads, however negative image ads tended to be more effective than negative issue ads. A complex interaction of the personality variables with the sequence of image versus issue ads suggested that ad orientation can affect the processing of political ads.

An assessment of the exposure potential that advertisements in sports stadiums receive through live and/or pre-recorded media coverage was examined through content analysis of sports telecasts for four different sports. Results showed significant exposure time (up to five total minutes during a 15-minute segment) for in-stadium advertisements placed within the camera angles of broadcast coverage. The article proposes a theoretical foundation for explaining the potential effects of such exposures and how they may differ from exposure to conventional advertising strategies. The article outlines a method for studying the actualized effects of these exposures for advertisers in the future.

The study uses in-home observations to examine audience behavior during a commercial break. Additionally, the study examines the relationship between program viewing and commercial viewing. Results indicate that for traditional programming, the expanded media environment may not have altered the way individuals approach commercials. The finding is different from recent studies examining newer forms of programming in the media environment.

This research details the findings of a recent survey of leading national advertisers and their views on the impact of electronic zipping (fast forwarding through commercials when viewing taped programs). Today the majority of television viewers have access to remote controls and VCR's. Taping of programming and subsequent zipping of commercials during playback have become routine practices. While commercial avoidance is not a new phenomenon, zipping does present viewers with an easier means of avoiding commercials. Therefore, the researchers sought to assess advertisers' perceptions of and reactions to electronic zipping. The advertisers indicated they are concerned about the effects of zipping; however, few have taken proactive measures to combat the impact of zipping. For example, only a few of the advertiser respondents have made modifications to their advertising strategies as a means of countering electronic zipping. Advertisers implementing content modifications have primarily limited those changes to creative enhancements (attempting to develop more entertaining commercials) and product dominance (making the advertised product appear on the screen for an extended period of time).

There has long been a debate over whether advertising should be considered an art or a science (cf., Moran 1986; Bogart 1986). Those involved in creative development consider it as the former, while business types focus far more on the numbers. This 'split' has been evident in the research side of the business too, with some people convinced that if an hypothesis cannot be rejected or accepted based on quantitative evidence then it does not count, while others believe in the value of more subjective, evaluative techniques. Giambattista Vico, the eighteenth century historian, argued that only people can understand people through what he called "intuitive understanding" (Kover 1983). Qualitative research may be defined as a method for obtaining greater and deeper insights into how consumers think, feel, and act. Its overall goal is not to emphasize the importance of developing general social laws or concepts, but rather to focus on the unique situational nature of the meaning of social phenomena. As such, it acts as one of the tools in the advertising or marketing researchers' arsenal. Its purpose is both to supplement information that can be gained quantitatively and to provide answers to questions that cannot be found solely by statistical methods. Yet little research is available on qualitative research itself. How important is it - or should it be - both within the advertising industry and for educators and researchers? What insights can be gained from using techniques such as focus groups, naturalistic observation, or historical studies, for example, that we are unable to obtain otherwise? And what are some of the drawbacks of these methods? This session examines the quality and use of qualitative research from multiple perspectives. Using a combination of industry and academic participants, we hope to provide both practical and theoretical viewpoints on how qualitative research can, is, and should be used.

For years, advertising practitioners and academicians have focused their attention on the successes and failures of advertising campaigns across counties or continents. Fueled by the imminent arrival of Europe 1992, the rapidly changing eastern Europe, and, to a lesser extent, Hong Kong 1997, this attention has now carried with it almost a sense of urgency.

"Traditional vs. Western Appeals in Chinese Magazine Advertisements: Hong Kong and Taiwan"
Yorgo Pasadeos and Mei-Chiung Chi

"From Italy to North America: Using Functional Equivalence to Develop an Advertising Concept with International Appeal (The Case of Parmigiano- Reggiano)"
Fiona Chew, Joanne Lenweaver, and David Lenweaver

"Global Markets and Standardized Advertising: Is it Happening? An Analysis of Common Brands in USA and UK"
Abhilasha Mehta

"The Youth Market: A Study of American and Japanese Students as Consumers"
Jyotika Ramaprasad and Kazumi Hasegawa

The paper examines the nature and effects of realism as a dramatic mode in "slice of life" advertisements. It turns to classical Aristotelian criticism to identify the raw materials of modern realistic drama--plot, character, setting, theme, and dialogue. Next, it analyzes relationships among the elements to discover how Aristotle's principles of imitation of action, unity of action, and magnitude are used in advertisements. Last, it proposes questions for future research on slice of life advertising effects on consumers' attention, memory, and emotional responses.

We know that consumers are influenced by perceptions of what others have and do. Some of these perceptions are determined via direct experience, while others are determined through less direct representations. One of the primary purposes of advertising, in its quest to attract attention and influence behavior, is to create a perception of the targeted group member (i.e., housewife, business executive, teenager, happy family), with a problem (then halitosis, now gingivitis) that is widespread, and thus not too deviant, and can only be remedied by the advertised brand. From the 1920's on, this has been the essential premise of "reason why" and "slice of life" advertising (Fox, 1984; Liess, Kline, and Jhally, 1988). Such a perceptual manipulation by advertising results in a variety of effects. First of all, consumers are persuaded to believe that a particular "problem" is truly a problem. For example, the classic commercial which pointed up the problem of "ring around the collar" sought to instill in the minds of consumers that this unsightly mess was truly something to be battled with extreme force. Secondly, consumers are persuaded that the brand advertised is the preferred answer to the particular problem. In other words, it is Wisk that best eliminates "ring around the collar". Finally, a third effect is to create the impression that the problem is widespread. This implies a high probability that the individual audience member may suffer from the problem. This is especially important when attempting to convince consumers of a problem which is not always readily evidence such as "refrigerator odor" and the unseen germs which cause "housatosis". Several researchers (e.g., Levy, 1959; McCracken, 1996; Mick, 1986) have addressed the role of advertisements in creating symbolic and cultural beliefs in consumers. However, little has been written which addresses beliefs about more concrete personal problems which advertisers purport to be able to solve. This study attempts to construct a theoretical framework which can adequately deal with these issues, and presents the results of a study designed to assess the perceptual effects of advertising claims. This study attempts to investigate the long term effect of advertising on perceptions of the incidence of personal and social problems frequently addressed in television advertising. The hypothesis put forth is that total television viewing, as an indirect and unobtrusive measure of exposure to advertising messages, will correlate positively with perceptions of the prevalence of such problems as gingivitis, bladder control problems, high blood pressure, dandruff, etc. The theoretical reasoning is that frequent exposure to the advertisements makes the particular problem salient or highly accessible in memory. Following the logic of the Kahneman and Tversky's work on heuristics (for reviews see Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky 1982; Sherman and Corty 1984), this increased accessibility may result in a higher frequency estimate. Further, this effect should be most pronounced for those with no direct experience with the particular problem. The results obtained tentatively support these hypotheses.

This qualitative study seeks to understand the meaning of alcoholic-beverage advertising from the perspective of the recovering alcoholic. The research is significant in that the numbers of individuals who meet the diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse and dependence are predicted to rise to 15.4 million by the year 2000. Additionally, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services predicted that in 1988 alone alcohol abuse and dependency would cost the nation $70.3 billion in lost output and work days, treatment and support of those persons with alcohol problems, and alcohol-related deaths. To promote beer, wine and liquor, U.S. advertisers spent $1.04 billion through measured media in 1990. Despite this rather large expenditure, research at both the aggregate and individual levels fails to demonstrate a strong relationship between advertising and alcohol consumption. A variety of audiences and research techniques has been employed to test this relationship; however, none has studied in the natural setting the effects of advertising on the recovery process for alcoholics. This study asked, therefore: does advertising in some way interfere with the recovery process for alcoholics; how do alcoholics deal with advertising messages that tell them drinking is part of the "good life" when they know that to recover fully they must not drink; and, what if anything, does alcoholic-beverage advertising mean to this group? To understand the context within which alcoholics interpret their experience, 20 participants (15 males and 5 females) ranging in age from 25 to 64, were recruited from five alcohol-dependency treatment programs. The participants had been in recovery anywhere from three weeks to 20 years. Interviews typically began with the statement, "Tell me about your recovery process," and then proceeded to areas that were of interest to the participants. All interviews were anonymous, tape recorded, transcribed and entered in the computer program ETHNOGRAPH for analysis. Participants' comments regarding advertising were coded by the three researchers into five thematic categories: 1) triggers -- the impulse to drink can be triggered by a variety of factors, one of which is advertising; 2) images and techniques -- music and party scenes are most troubling to alcoholics: 3) avoidance/ reinterpretation -- alcoholics who see that they are affected by advertising consciously avoid or reinterpret its message; 4) diminishing influence -- the influence of advertising seems to diminish with length of time in recovery; 5) no effect-some alcoholics indicated that their recovery is not affected by advertising. These insights were shared with the alcohol counselors from the various treatment centers. Their interpretations of the process supported those produced through the analysis of the transcripts. Public policy implications for the recovery process are also discussed.

As television viewers gain more control over their viewing environment and become more sophisticated in avoiding commercials, the thought processes and behaviors engaged in by these viewers are of ever-increasing importance to advertisers. Previous research has suggested that one approach for gaining greater understanding lies in exploration of viewers' cognitive scripts, and that such research should focus on commercial breaks within the context of television viewing rather than limiting it to the story sequences within specific advertisements. This paper reports preliminary results from a script elicitation study regarding viewer activity during commercial breaks. Findings suggest that many viewers anticipate commercial breaks and employ methods of judging their length. Informants reported engaging in purposeful behavior to avoid commercials. Further, it appears from these findings that conscious decisions are made regarding which commercials to watch, based on explicit criteria, and about alternative activities carried out when not watching. It is inferred that a cognitive script (or set of scripts) exists for television viewing, and it is suggested that this script should be validated using accepted procedures. Further, future research is advocated using ethnographic methods to gain richer information and insight into the phenomenon of television viewing.

While there has been a great deal of interest in personal values and their relationship to consumer behavior over the last two decades, there has only been a moderate amount of concern with the extent to which values are expressed in advertising. Given the level of interest in the relationship between values and consumer behavior, it would seem that the extent to which values are expressed in advertising and how they are expressed is an important research question in this area. While Pollay (1983) has developed a system for coding the particular values that are expressed, little work has been done on how values are expressed in advertising. This paper suggests a method of determining and coding the different ways values are expressed in the advertising message. This coding scheme is a set of dimensions on which an advertising execution can be evaluated. This method will provide academic researchers with a way to evaluate how different advertising elements work together to express a value. Practitioners will have a coding scheme that will allow them to assess the degree of value appeals in their advertising.

Recent studies have asked whether emotional feelings elicited by commercials affect attitudes toward brands only through their effects on liking commercials (Aad), or whether there are direct effects of emotional feelings on attitude toward the brand (Abr). The present study extends investigation of these questions by looking at six separate kinds of emotion-eliciting commercials (Drive Surgency, Calm-Peacefulness, Warm, Poignant, Disgust-Anxiety, and Neutral) and by considering for each one the effects of emotional response (i.e., pleasure and arousal) in the processing flow. Results indicate that the pleasure dimension of emotion accounts for most of the variance in Aad for all the types of commercials, including Neutrals. Arousal effects overlap to a large degree with Pleasure effects, but even Arousal does have a small, but statistically significant effect on Aad for all categories. Aad accounts for the most Abr variance, but for Poignants, Warms, and Calm-Peacefuls, pleasure and arousal, account for small but direct effects on Abr.

The purpose of the panel was to describe the profound changes in structure and function of U.S. advertising agency research departments in recent years and to discuss the status of consumer representation in advertising organizations. The rise of British-style account planning in the U.S. as a means of obtaining the consumer viewpoint in the development of advertising was documented by way of a review of industry surveys and practitioner opinion. The second focus of discussion was how academics can integrate the philosophies and techniques of consumer representation into an advertising curriculum.

"Account Planning: A History, Description, and Evaluation of its Use in U.S. Agencies"
Alice Kendrick and Kimberly Dee

"The Creative Approach to Insightful Research"
Sandra Moriarity

"Who's Minding the Consumer? A Consumer Insight Approach to Education of Advertising Students"
Lisa Fortini-Campbell

"Start an Account Planning Department"
Hart Weichselbaum

Given the bottom-line orientation of advertising in the last years of the 20th Century and the excessive clutter in the media, it is time to review the place of aesthetic creativity in message strategies. This article models the relationship between artistry and marketplace impact. It also focuses on analyzing the high artistry/high selling power quadrant of the model to determine if aesthetic or creative advertising can be found that also has marketplace impact.

This paper develops and tests a typology of musical elements in television commercials. The typology that is developed is more comprehensive than previous attempts at classification. Music in commercials is coded according to structural, stylistic and mnemonic devices. The typology is tested on a sample of 292 network television commercials. Issues of intercoder reliability are examined and implications for effects research is discussed.

Self-esteem has been proposed as a potentially powerful form of advertising appeal. Self-esteem refers to how people feel about themselves and can be distinguished from self-concept which is a more cognitive construct. This study examines comparative preference and rating scores for self-esteem appeals versus product benefit appeals. Adults appear to like self-esteem appeals at least as much as product benefit appeals. Younger adults are more likely to favor self-esteem appeals, but subjects' own self-esteem scores were generally unrelated to appeal ratings. Suggestions for the future study of self-esteem appeals are provided.

The intent of this session was to address the concerns of both academics and professionals regarding the purpose of graduate advertising education. This session discussed whether or not a Master's degree in advertising offers any "value added" over a Bachelor's degree. As advertising education continues to grow, this issue becomes one of greater concern for academics. If a student with a Bachelor's in Advertising asks whether or not it would be advantageous to obtain a Master's in Advertising, what should we respond? If asked whether it is better to get a Master's in Advertising or a Master's in Business Administration, what is the best answer? If the student has a Bachelor's degree in some other discipline (e.g., English, art, etc.) would that student do better to pursue a second Bachelor's degree, in advertising, or an MA. in advertising? These are the kinds of questions discussed in the session that brought together four papers which presented the perspective of both advertising educators and practitioners.

"Advertising Agency Views on Graduate Education in Advertising"
Jef I. Richards and Patricia A. Stout

"An Agency View of Graduate Advertising Education (or An Exercise in Fence Sitting)"
Helen Katz

"Graduate Education in Advertising - Pedagogy, Promise, and Peril"
Kim Rotzoll

"New Approaches to Graduate Education in Advertising and Public Relations"
John Eighmey

Advertising's relentless priority is to the current, but we lose much when we succumb. Advertising and its denizens have been someplace. It is, arguably, only when we understand where and why that we can fully understand and teach where we are now and where, through the currents and spasms of history, we are directed.