A RE-EVALUATION OF THE REPORTED INFLUENCE OF THE JOE CAMEL TRADE CHARACTER ON CIGARETTE TRIAL AND USE BY MINORS (p. 1, 1993)
Richard Mizerski, Brenda S. Sonner, and Katherine Straughn

A recent edition of the Journal of the American Medical Association contained three studies which claimed to provide empirical evidence that the R. J. Reynolds' Camel campaign, using the Joe Camel trade character: (1) influenced children as young as 3 years-old to smoke cigarettes, (2) increased the illegal sale of Camel cigarettes to underage children from $6 million per year to $476 million per year, and (3) was causally related to young people becoming addicted to cigarettes. This article reviews these three studies and suggests that this research is conceptually and methodologically flawed. The results of the JAMA studies cannot support their widely publicized conclusions, nor the associated proposal of a ban on trade characters in cigarette advertising.

Exposure of minors to cigarette advertising has long been contentious, disdained by critics while dismissed by the industry and its apologists as neither intentional nor consequential. In the 1960s calls to stop appeals and exposure to children came from many sources, including advertising professionals, the advertising trade press and the National Association of Broadcasters. In response, the Tobacco Institute and its member firms claimed they would avoid programs whose content attracted youthful audiences. The analysis of television buying patterns reported here, however, finds that the greater the proportion of teens watching a time slot, the greater the probability of cigarette sponsorship, with a resulting teen exposure rate estimated to be over 100 TV ads per month.

The recent (1990) FDA action regulating the usage of terms such as "light/lite," and "low" on food labels has heightened consumer awareness of issues related to the meanings of such terms used in the branding and description of food products. Though the FDA action would regulate the usage of such terms on the labels of products it would not regulate their usage in the advertising for products. The research presented in this study evaluates consumer perceptions of the utility and credibility of advertising for food products and consumer perceptions of the meanings of the terms "light," "diet," and "natural" in advertising for food products.

The concept and process of Integrated Marketing Communications is a controversial topic among members of the marketing communication disciplines. However, one point of disagreement -- whether the approach is really innovative or not -- must be considered moot. Innovation or buzzword, marketers give every indication of their intent to approach their marketing communication efforts from this perspective.

This study was undertaken to determine if the late '80's mergers and the current recession have had any effect on the quality of today's advertising. Is agency management experiencing increased pressure to produce profits, and has the work environment and the resulting work been affected? The sample was drawn to include high level creative executives from public and privately held agencies. It included large ($1 billion +), medium-sized, and small ($20 million) agencies. Thirty four tape recorded one-on-one interviews, averaging one hour in length, were conducted in New York (9), Los Angeles (9), Chicago (8), San Francisco (4), Portland, OR (3), and Seattle (1). Three of the interviews were conducted over the telephone. (It should be noted that two executives with the American Association of Advertising Agencies were among the sample.)
The participants are currently responsible for overseeing work that will appear in more than three billion dollars worth of media. Among those interviewed were, Andy Berlin, Phil Dusenberry, Cliff Einstein, Cliff Freeman, Steve Hayden, Caroline Jones, Paul Keye, Joe La Rosa, Ed McCabe, John O'Toole, Jerry Siano, Eric Weber, Dan Wieden, and Tracy Wong. The findings of the study are best summarized by a quote from one of the west coast participants, "It's not profitable to do good work."

The current context of advertising management is discussed and attention is focused on the relationships between agencies and advertisers. Basic concerns with agency performance and client satisfaction persist. Prior research and discussions of the relationship between advertisers and agencies provide many useful insights, but there are important gaps in our present understanding. It is proposed that a service quality management (SQM) focus helps fill many of these gaps. The application of the SQM perspective is discussed, and it is argued that agencies adopting this orientation will benefit both in terms of existing and new business opportunities. The basic rationale is that this paradigm provides a comprehensive framework for the assessment of agency performance, and it is a sound basis for the proactive management of client relationship satisfaction. Empirical efforts will be required to shape the adoption of this approach. Thus, several directions for scholarly research are discussed.

Based on analysis of data from a month-long diary study, this research examines the relative influence of advertising and family variables on children's product requesting behavior, and examines factors shaping parental responses to requests. Results show that child's age, amount of television viewing, and mother's previous yielding behavior are significantly related to frequency of product requests; situational variables are important determinants of parental yielding.

This study examines the antecedents of children's purchase requests. A path model is proposed to explain the relationships among five variables - advertising experience, advertising perception, attitude toward advertising, attention to advertising, and parental yielding to purchase requests - and their relationships to children's purchase requests. The model was tested using data collected among children in China. The results suggest that children's negative ad experience has a negative impact on their perception of advertising. Children's perception of advertising is a positive predictor of attitude toward advertising, and it also has an indirect impact on children's attention to advertising and purchase requests. Attitude toward advertising is a positive predictor of attention to advertising. Attention to advertising is a determinant of purchase requests. Parental yielding to children's purchase requests is a positive predictor of children's attention to advertising and purchase requests.

In recent years, several advocacy groups [e.g., Action for Children's Television (ACT) and the American Academy of Pediatrics] have been critical of television programs which have been developed primarily to promote toys. While research suggests that parents' views of toy-based programming (TBP) are not overwhelmingly negative, it does indicate that parents are indeed concerned with the potential effects of such programs on children. Utilizing recent developments from the parental socialization literature, the present study seeks to determine if parental concern with TBP varies among parents utilizing distinct socialization orientations. Data gathered from 347 mothers of elementary school children in three distinct regions of the U.S. are used to address this issue. Results suggest that TBP perceptions and attitudes vary across parental socialization groups. Specifically, Authoritative and Permissive parents have more negative attitudes toward TBP than Neglecting parents. However, perceptions regarding specific concerns about TBP do not mimic this pattern. Specifically, Authoritarian parents maintain a greater concern about the anti-social behavior-inducing elements of TBP than Neglecting parents. In addition, Authoritative parents are more concerned with the interference that TBP might bring to their children's school activities and creative play than Permissive parents. Furthermore, both Authoritative and Permissive parents express a greater concern with children being taken advantage of in the marketplace (via their exposure to TBP) than Authoritarian and Neglecting parents. Finally, Authoritarian parents are more concerned about the possibility that TBP is replacing more creative programming than are Neglecting parents. These results suggest that parents' concerns with TBP are multi-dimensional in nature and are not consistent across parental segments employing varying socialization orientations. Thus, those marketers wishing to utilize TBP as a promotional technique may wish to target different types of programs to children in various types of family environments. Moreover, these results also suggest that public policy makers consider perceptions and attitudes of various "types" of parents when determining what actions (if any) to take with regard to TBP.

The purpose of this study was to go beyond the standardized-localized debate on international advertising. The study focused on agency attitudes toward using standardized campaigns, finding that the main reasons they are used are to build global brands and make use of proven successful creative ideas. It also looked at agency practitioner views about future trends in the global marketplace and what effect these trends will have on standardized advertising. The method was a survey using a questionnaire mailed to, and self-administered by, randomly selected ad agency managers from the International Advertising Association (IAA) global list of advertising agencies. Findings indicate a high level of agreement that standardized campaigns would be used more in the next five years and that segments of demographically and psychographically similar consumers were emerging across cultures and national boundaries, thus providing receptive cross-cultural target audiences for standardized campaigns. Agencies that have international clients will have to look for strategies and executions that are not culturally sensitive. If we accept the premise that standardization of advertising does not mean that all campaign elements will be exactly the same in all countries receiving the advertising, more and more efforts will be made to standardize as many elements in as many countries, as possible, and the growth in standardization will probably parallel the respondents' expectations. Agencies must be prepared to operate their offices around the world in a way that will quickly identify good ideas that travel. Even though the purpose of this study was not to argue the standardization-localization debate, the findings do show that standardization is, and will continue to be, a major objective for agencies who have multinational clients.

This paper examines the theoretical and empirical support for the concepts of effective reach and frequency. Although effective reach and frequency have become standard industry doctrine, there appears to be little, if any, theoretical or empirical support in the literature for either concept. In fact, there is considerable published evidence to refute the validity of the effective reach and frequency concepts. To proceed with our argument, we consider three issues: 0 The implication of "vehicle" versus "advertising" exposure, 0 The nature of the advertising response curve, 0 The notion of optimal versus effective frequency.

The canonical expansion model (CANEX) of Danaher (1991) has demonstrated superior performance to the Dirichlet multinomial distribution model (DMDLK) developed by Leckenby and Kishi (1984) in reproducing observed exposure distributions. This is an inference drawn from tests on AGB McNair data on magazine audiences in New Zealand. The test did not involve a direct comparison of CANEX and DMDLK but rather a contrast between CANEX and another model which had previously performed better than the DMDLK. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of a direct test of the CANEX and DMDLK models, among others, on U.S. data which have most often served as the benchmark for such tests, Simmons Market Research Bureau audience data.

The purpose of the model is to suggest the best manner in which to compare media alternatives at various stages within the advertising communication process.

In an attempt to reconcile the apparently contradictory findings of Cannon (1988) and Danaher and Rust (1992), this study investigated a large number of television product-media combinations, as did Danaher and Rust. However, consistent with Cannon's study, it divided the combinations into relatively selective, neutral, and negatively selective groups. According to Cannon's theory, the study hypothesized that the simulation method would underestimate the concentration of product users for selective combinations, provide accurate estimates for neutral combinations, and overestimate the concentration for negatively selective combinations.

The purpose of this paper is to assess the impact of the Fox decision on subsequent cases within the first three years of the decision. Specifically, federal cases wherein Fox has been cited are identified, and the relevance of Fox is assessed.

While showing how the above concepts are related, this article will also challenge the three underlying assumptions, which have been best explicated in regard to commercial speech but which have set precedents that can impact a wide variety of expression. If successful, then beauty and freedom of expression, including commercial expression, may be seen as requiring an existence and domain apart from the state.

The FCC left the clearing or prescreening of infomercials (paid program-length commercials) for deceptive content to the judgment of individual TV managers when it deregulated commercial television in 1984-85. A national mail survey of sales managers was conducted to discover which managerial factors affect the number of complaints about infomercials a television station receives. A manager's level of experience, as well as whether he/she considers personal ethical values and earning the highest possible profits appear related to the incidence of infomercial complaints. Results also suggest that other factors, such as organizational factors, market factors, and the number of infomercials aired, should be examined in future research to determine whether they have more of an influence on the number of complaints a station receives about infomercials.

A recent direct response magazine advertisement from Patagonia used a profane expletive as the one-word headline. That single word was used to describe the firm's outrage and disgust over shoreline pollution. And although the firm received a few complaints, that advertisement was credited with a sales response almost three times the national average (6.5%). Clearly, using profanity in an advertisement represents an ethical judgment on the part of the advertiser. The acceptance and embrace of that profanity also says something about the ethics of the consumer. Exactly what that statement is, or how advertisers can predict consumers' responses, is not clear. But with such a high response rate, investigation is warranted. This paper reviewed several empirical studies on consumer ethics (Tansey, Hyman and Brown 1992; Fraedrich and Ferrell 1992; Muncy and Vitell 1992; Strong and Meyer 1992; Vitell, Lumpkin and Rawwas 1991; Pitts, Wong and Whalen 1991; Whalen, Pitts and Wong 1991; Fritzche 1991). This review provided the basis for formulating a theoretical model that depicts the process by which ethical judgments affect consumer decision-making. By integrating the empirical findings into a general (Engle, Blackwell and Miniard 1992) model of consumer decision-making, a better understanding of the complex and interactive nature of ethical judgments was possible. One implication of this review and model-building effort is that ethical judgments are a distinct and interactive part of the consumer decision process. Another is that both the advertiser's ethics and the consumer's ethical reasoning have real, bottom-line effects. This conclusion indicates that advertising practitioners may want to examine the viability of ethically sensitive advertising appeals.

This paper examines the self-reported ethics of decision-making among sample members (N=460) of the American Advertising Federation (AAF). It also examines their application of deontology to four scenarios on advertising ethics. Deontology or duty-based ethics-asserts that it is always wrong to steal, lie, cheat or break a promise; it is always one's moral duty to tell the truth and to keep one's clients informed truthfully about projects conducted in their behalf-regardless of the consequences. Practitioners' adherence to pure deontology is indicated by those who responded "definitely yes" or "maybe yes" to four measures of deontology in each of the four scenarios. Results indicate that deontology is clearly not the ethics of choice among the sample practitioners and that their responses to the dilemmas are largely at odds with the absolutist principles of deontology. The results also indicate a strong perceived reluctance on the part of ad agencies to institute policies, either written or oral, that would proscribe unethical conduct in the workplace. This paper, therefore, argues that the U.S. advertising industry's de-emphasis of deontological ethics is one reason for its susceptibility to public criticism and for its struggle with unfavorable public perceptions of its ethics-and credibility. Further analyses of the data indicate that, for the most part, demographic variables do not have significant effects on practitioners' responses to the four scenarios, suggesting that their evaluations of the scenarios may have been influenced more by their personal values than by demographic factors. Practitioners' age and the number of employees supervised show the strongest effects on members' application of deontology to the scenarios. Older members, those who supervised more than three employees, and those who worked eight or more years in advertising tended not to respond deontologically to the ethical situations, suggesting that they tended not to perceive the practitioners' conduct outlined in the scenarios as morally questionable.

Calendars have long been a featured medium for advertising firms to promote products. This paper focuses on a form of calendar advertising: 'pin-up' calendars, the calendars that portray women in suggestive poses and attire.

This paper examines the relationship between choice of message strategy--especially the decision to "go negative" in advertisements--as a function of both incumbency and the perceptions of incumbency advantages that are held by both challengers and incumbents. Hypotheses are developed from Congressional campaigns in 1982 that are tested using data from the 1990 election cycle. Findings from the 1982 and 1990 studies indicate that there are strong similarities between the two election cycles. Specifically, emphasis in campaign advertising messages on issues or candidate personal qualities is independent of incumbency status. However, the choice to "go negative" and emphasize opponent's characteristics is strongly predicted by both incumbency status and the perception of how much the incumbent in the race benefits from his or her tenure in office.

Subjects in an experiment read about a campaign and viewed a series of political print advertisements, including negative ads. Two important independent variables, party-based candidate expectancies and target response, were examined as moderators of changes in source and target trait ascriptions. Results showed that the effects of negative advertisements varied substantially as a function of both independent variables. Implications of the findings are discussed.

The primary objective of the present research was to analyze the use of humor in radio commercials by conducting a longitudinal analysis across 15 years of Clio Award winning radio commercials. The specific objectives of this study were to conduct a longitudinal analysis in terms of 1) the frequency of the use of humor; 2) the types of humor; and 3) the delivery formats.

One way of increasing the category volume of a product is by advertising its expanded use into new situations. Such "expansion advertising" is defined as advertising that encourages the use of a certain product in a specific consumption situation in which it is infrequently, or never, used by the target market. For instance, Arm & Hammer Baking Soda conducted a very successful expansion advertising campaign when it expanded the brand's use to include refrigerator deodorization. Given the success that expansion advertising has had in increasing category usage and brand usage, this abstract raises the following question: When is expanding volume through new uses best accomplished through brand-sponsored advertising and when is it best accomplished through industry association-sponsored advertising?

This study is the first to examine consumer information search patterns within the context of a gift purchase. As such, it examines research questions instead of hypotheses. 1) Are distinct external search patterns identifiable among Christmas shoppers? 2) If so, what is the nature of these patterns? 3) To what extent are gift search patterns related to differences in gift-giving motivations, demographic and/or psychographic variables?

In this paper, a practitioner-based survey of one specific advertising research function is reported -- research directors with the 200 leading U.S. advertising agencies were surveyed to examine their views on the current state of TV commercial pretesting.

Television advertising directed toward children has stirred considerable debate and prompted much research in recent years. Although this research has presented useful information regarding children's processing of television messages, it neglects several important issues. One such issue is the need for research that examines whether the child consumer is influenced by the attitude s/he forms toward an advertisement itself (Aad). The relevance of investigating Aad stems from previous research, using adult subjects, which indicated that Aad is one of the factors that influence brand attitude (Ab) and purchase intention (PI) (e.g., Cox and Locander 1987; Gresham and Shimp 1985; Moore and Hutchinson 1983; Thorson and Page 1989). However, there is no evidence of research investigating the Aad-Ab-PI relationship with children. This study begins to address the question of whether the theoretical relationships among Aad-Ab-PI developed for adults are applicable to children. More specifically, this study provides an initial investigation of the relationships among Aad, Ab, and PI for pre-adolescent children, under various conditions of brand familiarity, grade level, and timing of the measures taken.

Advertising pretesting situations have been accused of creating an artificial situation where the ad is the only source of information for consumers. However, in real life, direct response advertising does in fact create such a situation. A study was conducted where 152 student subjects were exposed to either a direct response ad or a regular ad for a fictitious brand of compact disc player. In the first stage of the analysis, three alternative models explaining the mediating role of Attitude Toward the Ad (Aad) were tested, using path analysis. The three models were the Independent Influences Hypothesis (IIH), the Affect Transfer Hypothesis (ATH) and the Dual Mediation Hypothesis (DMH). Of these three, the Dual Mediation Hypothesis (DMH) was found to fit the data better than the other two. However, in keeping with the findings of some past researchers, the path from brand cognitions (Cb) to brand attitudes (Ab) was not significant. Hence, two alternative models -- the Extended Contextual Evaluation Transfer (ECET) model and the Contextual Dual Influences (CDIH) model -- are proposed. These provide a better fit to the data. In the second stage of the analysis, a path model of the antecedents of Ab was tested for the two groups of respondents separately, to see if the antecedents differed across the two types of ads. Limited support was found for some of the hypothesized paths. Implications for practitioners and suggestions for future research are offered.

One purpose of the paper was to test an expanded model of advertising response developed from Miniard, Bhatia, and Rose (1990). The model attempts to enhance our understanding of the relationship between attitude toward the ad (Aad) and brand attitudes (Ab) by examining the possibility of the two constructs to be multidimensional rather than unidimensional. Specifically, attitude toward the ad is modeled to consist of the claim and non-claim components (representing the central and peripheral processing mechanisms, respectively). Similarly, brand attitude is modeled into the utilitarian and hedonic components. The proposed model examines the pattern of the relationship among the Aad and Ab components across different levels of involvement. Many previous Aad studies examined the relationship between cognitive responses to the brand (Cb) and brand attitudes, but the result has been inconsistent. MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch (1986), for example, found no significant relationship between Cb and Ab while Homer (1990) reported that the Cb-->Ab path reached significance. Miniard et al., on the other hand, found that the Cb-->Ab link was significant only in the high involvement condition. Muehling, Laczniak, and Stoltman (1991) suggested that the inconsistent findings on the Cb-->Ab relationship could be due to the open-ended measure of cognitive responses. Therefore, the second purpose of the article was to re-examine the relationship between brand cognitions and Ab using both the thought-listing method and a closed-ended measurement for Cb.

The results indicate that in general, emotional responses to storyboards and animatics are reliable representations of emotional responses to finished commercials. In some instances, however, there will be significant differences between formats.

Since 1989, the national newspaper has tapped the hoopla surrounding Super Bowl advertising. In an effort to quantify how well commercials scored on the TV screen, USA TODAY has annually recruited volunteers to use an 11-point Ad Meter to rate how much they liked each national Super Bowl commercial.

Semiotics has received mounting attention in the consumer behavior and advertising literatures in recent years. This attention is only part of a larger movement within advertising and consumer behavior research to explore what Hudson and Ozanne (1988) describe as alternative ways of knowing. This article attempts to demystify semiotics by defining it, delineating differing intellectual traditions within semiotics, and illustrating how the perspective translates into method by looking at how a pragmatic semiotics perspective was used in research concerning meanings of AIDS public service announcements to rural young adults.

The present exploratory study uses identical semantic differential scales to explore a balance theory approach to linking celebrity endorsers and charitable organizations. Each celebrity/agency pair was evaluated on the three generally accepted dimensions of source credibility. The effect of endorsements was pronounced and the balance theory formula did not do a good job of prediction in all cases. The most noticeable failure: an agency with a strong positive image (MADD) is likely to have its image damaged when it is linked with an endorser (Madonna) with a strong negative image. The results also indicate that the likelihood of contributing to an endorsed organization is positively correlated with the dimensions of source credibility. These findings have important implications for charitable organizations.

The primary objective of this paper is to develop a number of communications hypotheses in order to provide managers of charities with effective, actionable guidelines for message development. A second objective is to develop a comprehensive model of the individual's helping behavior, incorporating antecedents, experiences, and consequences of such behavior for the charitable organization, the donor and for society in general.

The purpose of this study was to extend our knowledge about compulsive buying and to determine if compulsive buyers might be particularly susceptible to advertising appeals that stress that self esteem is connected to the brand being advertised.

Consumers make product choices that are (at least in part) reflective of their psychological needs and motivations. Research suggests that people have specific sets of psychological needs based on their birth orders. In an experimental setting, findings supported the hypothesis that ads that convey a brand image that "matches" the consumer's needs (as derived from their birth order) are most effective.

This study challenged standard assumptions about the effects of puffery. Commercial messages using highly puffed language and parallel messages using non-emotional facts were administered randomly to 230 upperclassmen. I measured whether subjects would be persuaded more by puffed or unpuffed messages about familiar and unfamiliar products in two familiar categories. The results indicated that puffery not only did not improve consumers' attitudes toward a familiar or unfamiliar product, it actually lowered their attitude toward personal care products. The results also showed that puffery does not have a priming, or framing, effect on subsequent advertising. The implication of the results for standard puffery criticism and for advertising practice were discussed.

This ethnographic study offers insight into and an understanding of how the "meaning" of advertising and its role as an institution changed in the Soviet Union. Symbolic interactionism suggests that things have different meanings for different people at different times. This qualitative study discusses (1) the role of institutions as a system of ideas and (2) the influence of Russian culture on advertising in the USSR. This research study was conducted on-site in Moscow, Russia May 1991. Twenty interviews were audio-taped in Russian with selected government officials, industry professionals, academicians and students. In the participants' own words, ties to their Russian culture dominated discussions of advertising in the USSR. In doing so, it offers insight into the meanings that Soviet individuals gave to advertising and its developing role as an economic and social institution within the context of their Russian culture, social norms and individual values. Findings suggest that advertising is a form of cultural communication and must be viewed from the perspective of a Russian culture in order to be understood. The findings reported in this paper are part of an ongoing research study begun in May 1990, and continued in May 1991 when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was still a unified country. In December 1991, the USSR was reconfigured into the Commonwealth of Independent States. Hence, the Soviet Union as it was during the research time frame -- the USSR -- ceased to exist. Therefore, to facilitate the understanding of the interaction between culture and advertising in the USSR, this study refers to the Soviet Union as it was in May 1991 and to the Russian culture as the heritage of the Soviet people before the 1917 Revolution and the advent of socialism.

Results showed that there are more information cues in the sound in US than in Japanese commercials. But thereafter the results were more complex. There were more information cues in the picture in Japanese commercials, but the results were not significantly different for some product categories and commercial lengths. The total number of information cues in 15 second commercials was not significantly different between the two countries, but there were significantly more information cues in US 30-second commercials than in Japanese commercials of the same length.

Trade and investment opportunities between the new Commonwealth of Independent States and the United States are expected to increase dramatically in the coming years. This study compiles currently available information regarding the status of advertising and advertising agencies in the Commonwealth and examines the media available for the placement of messages. The paper concludes with a descriptive analysis of current samples of print and broadcast advertising messages.

"Advertising's Funny Little Folktales"
Bruce G. Vanden Bergh

"Bergson's Theory of Laughter: Towards a Conceptualization and Classification of Humor in Advertising"
Barbara B. Stern

"From Jack Benny's Musings to 'Cha-chinging' Cash Registers: Laughing All the Way to the Bank"
John Eighmey

"Humor in Advertising: Contributions from the Social Sciences"
George M. Zinkhan

"Brand Contacts"
Lisa Fortini-Campbell

"The Fresh Start Case"
Janett A. Edelberg

"Brand Contacts - The Leo Burnett Experience"
Jayne Spittler

"Integrated Marketing Communications Planning at I.B.M."
Clarke Caywood

"Brand Contacts - Implications for Teaching"
Don Schultz

"What Is Reality? Blurring the Boundaries Between Marketing and Popular Culture"
Michael R. Solomon and Basil G. Englis

"Authentic and Deceptive Performance"
John Deighton

"The Art of Deception: Poetic License and Advertising Fiction"
Barbara B. Stern

"Seeing is Not Believing: The Cognitive Indication of Advertising Deceptiveness"
Jef I. Richards

"Discriminatory Advertising in the Housing Industry: An Experimental Investigation"
Tommy E. Whittler

"A Content Analysis of Alcohol and Tobacco Usage in Movies: Social Marketing Implications for Black/African American Consumers"
Jerome D. Williams

"Celebrity Endorsers and Race: A Report of Two Pilot Studies"
Charles S. Gulas and David L. Antes

"Minority Spokespersons in Advertising: The Role of Expertise and Degree of Involvement on Communicator Effectiveness"
Leland Campbell and Joby John

"Factors Moderating the Effective Use of Sequencing Strategies"
Gad Saad and Douglas M. Stayman

"The Role of Advertising Information and Repetition in Memory Structure and Attitude-Behavior Consistency"
Ida E. Berger

"Advertising Variation Strategies and Attitude Strength"
Curtis P. Haugvedt, Wendy L. Schneier, Wendy L. Warren, and David W. Schumann

"Introduction to Semiotics: An Overview"
Birgit Wassmuth

"Applied Semiotics and Consumer Behavior"
Charles Cleveland

"Sigmatics, the Fourth Dimension"
Birgit Wassmuth

"Teaching Meaning and Message in Advertising Communication"
Shay Sayre

"A Defense of Semiotics in Advertising"
Stephen Verba

"Semiotics: A Tool for Both Strategy and Communications"
Christine Wright-Isak

This session investigated one of the most threatening developments to the prestige and future visibility of advertising: the massive shift of promotional resources from advertising to sales promotion. In the last 15 years, the advertising industry has been in relative decline, while the sales promotion industry has boomed.

"Consumer Responses to Four Categories of Green Messages"
Esther Thorson and Tom Page

"The Baby is Sick/The Baby is Well: A Test of Environmental Communication Appeals"
Carl Obermiller

"Key Words and Images in 'Green' Advertising: Are Consumers Getting the Information They Need?"
April Atwood